Gregorian Chant

Within a few years following the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council, the use of Gregorian chant in celebrating the Church's liturgy has became increasingly rare. Despite the decreased use of chant after liturgical reforms, however, there is no indication that the Church intended a gradual disappearance of a chanted liturgy. The Church's magisterium succeeding Vatican II have, if anything, continued to reaffirm their preference for chant. Moreover, chanting the liturgy in vocal monophony dates back to the earliest period of the Church. While chant may not have the same user-friendly quality as the music which replaced it, its historical significance and connection to the development of the liturgy cannot be underestimated.

Gregorian chant finds its origins in the early Church fathers promoting the use of the human voice alone in celebrating the liturgy and Psalms.1 Stylistically, the liturgical chant had no instrumental accompaniment, and its melody relied exclusively on the voice of the singers. The subtleties and emotion of the human voice were conducive to expressing the somberness of the rite. Instrumental accompaniment were unnecessary, as any addition to the voice would end up obscuring the subtleties of the chant.2 To preserve the dignity and purpose of chant, they are monophonic in texture, meaning all the singers performed the same melody without any supporting harmony, nor interwoven counterpoint. The chanters singing in unison further expresses the austere nature of the liturgy, and emotionally moves the listener by complementing the text. St. Augustine stated that the chanters had even moved him to tears, which is the fullest realization of liturgical music.3

The use of chant in the Roman Church's liturgy had other purposes besides expressing emotion. Gregorian chant is a close companion to the Latin language. The melodic ascents and descents of a chant closely match the accent, stresses, and syllables of Latin words.4 The flexibility of the melodic phrasing and rhythms give chants an amorphous quality which can adapt to match the purpose of the recitation of the text. The recitation can be simple by organizing numerous syllables in one pitch if a text is sung for its own sake. Conversely, a text which is meant to be meditative can be sung in a melismatic way, where fewer syllables are matched with more notes, in order to emphasize personal reflection on the words.5 The lack of strict meters or form in a chanted melody preserves the sentence structure and grammatical divisions of a text, rather than adapt or alter a text to correspond with the music.6

The value of chanting the liturgy was a subject for papal proclamations as early as the Fourth Century. Pope Damasus stated at a convocation in Rome that psalms should be chanted, and his imperative has never been revoked to this day.7 The role of chant in the liturgical cycle would be further strengthened through continued codification. Although the exact degree of Pope Gregory I's contribution to the evolution of liturgical chant is uncertain, his compilation, organization, and codification of chant was significant enough to have his name associated with the chant of the Roman Church.8

The orientation towards a vernacular liturgy after Vatican II has effectively minimized liturgical chanting; at least in the U.S. This is partially due to vernacular languages not lending themselves to chant as effectively as Latin. Despite this trend, however, the popes who succeeded Vatican II continued to affirm their preference for Gregorian chant. Pope John Paul II stated that sacred music should especially draw from Gregorian chant.9 Pope Benedict XVI had advocated for updating sacred music within the traditions of both Gregorian chant, and sacred polyphony, as a way of exploring new artistic expressions while still connecting to the past.10

The use of Gregorian chant may not appeal to many individuals for various reasons. Some may not find chants as engaging as other forms of music, some might prefer a liturgy which is easy to understand, and some might not even be familiar with chanting altogether. However, chant has been a significant musical component of the Church from its earliest days, to contemporary times. Its structurally loose nature allows it to best translate the written and spoken word into music, and to vary in dynamics and intricacy as appropriate. Regardless of one's personal preferences for liturgical music, one should still appreciate chant's historicity and uniqueness in musically expressing text.

1. David Henry "The Attitude of the Church Towards Music from the Patristic Age to the Late Middle Ages." Sacred Music 111, no. 4, (1984). 22.

2 Joseph Lennards. "Gregorian Chant: Its Artistic Value and Its Interpretation." Sacred Music 135, no. 2, (2008). 45.

3. Henry. “Attitude of the Church Towards Music.” 23.

4. Lennards. “Gregorian Chant.” 46.

5. William Mahrt. "Gregorian Chant As A Paradigm Of Sacred Music." Sacred Music 133, no. 1, (2006). 7.

6. Columba Kelly. "Gregorian Chant: the Foundational Sound Christian Ritual Music." Sacred Music 137, no. 4, (2010). 24.

7. Henry. “Attitude of the Church Towards Music.” 23.

8. Henry. “Attitude of the Church Towards Music.” 24.

9. Theodore Marier. "Gregorian Chant, a Liturgical Art Form." Sacred Music 141, no. 2, (2014). 7.

10. Kelly. “Gregorian Chant...Christian Ritual Music.” 19.

Bibliography:

Henry, David. "The Attitude of the Church Towards Music from the Patristic Age to the Late Middle Ages." Sacred Music 111, no. 4, (1984). 22-30

Kelly, Columba. "Gregorian Chant: the Foundational Sound Christian Ritual Music." Sacred Music 137, no. 4, (2010). 18-31.

Lennards, Joseph. "Gregorian Chant: Its Artistic Value and Its Interpretation." Sacred Music 135, no. 2. (2008) 45-57.

Mahrt, William. "Gregorian Chant As A Paradigm Of Sacred Music." Sacred Music 133, no. 1, (2006). 5-14.

Marier, Theodore. "Gregorian Chant, a Liturgical Art Form." Sacred Music 141, no. 2, (2014). 5-14.

Thomas E. Woods, Jr. Reminds Us "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization": A Book Review

     

     Thomas E. Woods, Jr. reminds us of the achievements of the Catholic Church in his book “How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization.” It is a book that also responds to popular misconceptions with the truth about the world’s oldest institution, the Catholic Church. His work is not biased; he thoughtfully quotes non-Christians throughout his book. For instance, the agnostic historian Will Durant acknowledges that the Church was not the cause of cultural retrogression of the "Dark Ages":

“The basic cause of cultural retrogression was not Christianity but barbarism; not religion but war. The human inundations ruined or impoverished cities, monasteries, libraries, schools, and made impossible the life of the scholar or the scientist. Perhaps the destruction would have been worse had not the Church maintained some measure of order in a crumbling civilization.”[1]

      Furthermore, Thomas E. Woods, Jr. makes it impossible to believe that the Middle Ages were dark because he reminds us of the luminous Catholic minds that arose during this time like Saint Albert (c. 1200-1280). This Dominican friar of the Middles Ages was a precursor of modern science. This man of Catholic faith contributed to the scientific frame of mind because he refused to accept scientific authority on faith.[2] Also, those who believe that the Church was against the advancement of learning will be surprised to learn that the present-day university system was developed by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.

     Another popular belief that Thomas E. Woods, Jr. identifies is the European abuse of the native people during the conquest. He reveals to us something that is often overlooked by even the most educated men and women of today: For the first time in history there was philosophical reflection “among Catholic theologians in sixteenth-century Spain” provoked by the misbehavior of the Europeans.[3] Significant sectors of the Spanish people were actually troubled by the mistreatment of New World natives in the sixteenth century, especially philosophers and theologians.[4] As a result, this philosophical reflection is what led to the development of modern international law.

     “How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization” not only refutes popular misconceptions, but it also informs us of a love that was unknown in the ancient world. The Catholic Church transformed the way people lived with one another because “the Catholic Church invented charity as we know it in the west,” states Thomas E. Woods, Jr. [5] For instance, the invention of the hospital is also a development of the Catholic Church. “By the fourth century, the Church began to sponsor the establishment of hospitals on a large scale.”[6]

     In sum, the central message of this book is that Western Civilization needs to remember how the Church was involved in its development. Our present-day civilization is not flourishing as it had in the past because it has removed itself from its roots. Thomas E. Woods, Jr. ends his book by quoting Simone Weil, a French Philosopher; he knows the consequence of disregarding the contributions of the Church to civilization. This French philosopher states,

“I am not a Catholic, but I consider the Christian idea, which has its roots in Greek thought and in the course of the centuries has nourished all our European civilization, as something that one cannot renounce without becoming degraded.”[7]

      Sources:

1. Woods, T. E. (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 9.
2. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 95.
3. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 136.
4. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 136.
5. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 172.
6. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 178.
7. Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, 227.

The Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Saint Catherine of Siena: Book Review

The Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Saint Catherine of Siena relates a dialogue of love, mercy and holiness between God and St. Catherine. The work itself was dictated by the saint to her secretaries as she was in a state of ecstasy. It was completed in 1370 AD. Algar Thorold translated the work from Italian into English in 1974.

St. Catherine of Sienna was born March 5, 1347, a Palm Sunday, in Siena, Italy. She was the youngest of twenty five children of Giacomo and Lapa Benincasa. Her family was known for its piety. Since her childhood, the Lord favored St. Catherine with visions and visits of angels who came to play with her.¹ As a tertiary in the Dominican Order, she lived with ardent fidelity her identity and mission as daughter of the Church sustaining with her wisdom and prayers the Holy Father. Through the struggles faced by the Church in the middle ages, St. Catherine “experienced the great weight of the Church fall on her shoulders, and she offered herself and her suffering as a "victim" for the renewal of the Church.”² The Lord used St. Catherine as an instrument of reconciliation and peace in the time of the Great Schism; by her intercession, Pope St. Gregory the Great returned to Rome from Avignon in 1377.  

"Oh eternal God, 

receive the sacrifice of my own life on behalf of the mystical Body of Holy Church. I have nothing else to give except what You have given me."2

St. Catherine was canonized by Pius II, declared patron of Italy by Pius IX and Doctor of the Church on October 4, by Paul VI.³

The image on the cover of the book is a fresco from the Capella delle Volte in Siena painted by Andrea di Vanni around 1390.⁴ The fresco depicts the saint in her Dominican habit holding a lily (purity), marked by the stigmata. At her feet kneels a young woman kissing her hand; people of her time would do so with reverence recognizing the gift of God in her.

The Dialogue is a nonfiction work of the dialogue between God and St. Catherine, His “best-beloved, dearest and sweetest daughter, my spouse!”^5. The Lord communicates to Her His greatest desire: to “increase the fire of [His] love in [her] soul”^6. and responds to her four requests: to be illumined by His truth, to ask for mercy upon the world, to remove darkness and persecution from the Church, and to respond to a request for an individual.

The Introduction is written by Viareggio in 1906, who describes briefly the life of the Church and Italy in the middle ages, and the life of St Catherine.⁷ The Dialogue is written in early modern English, and is considered “one of the classics of the age and land”.⁸  The book is divided into four portions: A Treatise of Divine Providence, A Treatise of Discretion, A Treatise of Prayer, and A Treatise of Obedience.

Throughout The Dialogue, the Lord communicates spiritual realities to St. Catherine through analogies that enflesh these mysteries. I painted the image above to depict one of the analogies presented by God of “the Bridge, Christ Crucified”⁹ who is “the Way, the Truth, and the Life”(Jn 14:6 NABR). Jesus promised “when I am lifted up from the earth, I will draw everyone to myself” (Jn 12:32 NABR) for “no one comes to the Father except through me” (Jn 14:6 NABR).

“He who goes over the Bridge goes to life, while he who goes under It goes to perdition and death.”¹⁰ “In the river where there are no stones, only water, and since there are no supports in the water, no one can travel that way without drowning […]if the affection is not placed on the stones, but is placed, with disordinate love, on creatures, loving them, and being kept by them far from Me, the soul drowns,[…] and, because they pass by the door of falsehood, they receive eternal damnation. So then you see, that I have shown you both Truth and Falsehood, that is, My road which is Truth, and the Devil's which is Falsehood."¹¹

The Bridge reaches to the heights by the wood of the cross and yet is cemented upon the earth. This represents the hypostatic union of Jesus Christ, whose “divine nature remaining joined to the lowliness of the earth of your humanity.”¹² The Bridge’s walls are the “stones of true and sincere virtue,”¹⁰ “built upon Him the foundation, walled and roofed with the mercy of His Blood,” which is the “key that unlocked heaven.”¹³

The Bridge is a three step journey of the three states of the soul that require of the three powers of the soul: the intellect, memory and will. First, the person must “lift her feet from the affections of the earth [and] strip herself of vice” leaving the currents of the water and arriving at His pierced feet, the entrance to the Bridge.⁸

Second, the affections of the soul being ordered through detachment of self-love, the person continues to walk the Bridge until he arrives at the pierced Side. It is through the wound from which “blood and water flowed out” (Jn 19:34 NABR) that one receives “the baptism of water, which has virtue through the Blood, and where I dispose the soul to receive grace, uniting and kneading her together in the Blood; where […] the soul know of this her dignity […] and the fire of divine Charity.”¹² Third, the person arrives at the end of the Bridge, the mouth of the Crucified Lord, where finally the person “tastes peace” and experiences union with God. “The pilgrims which embark on the journey are sustained by His Body and Blood.”¹⁴

In The Dialogue, the Lord continually speaks through analogies that depict the spiritual life and the Christian journey. Before each discourse, St. Catherine provides a brief sentence to synthesize the Lord’s message to help guide the reader’s  includes the Lord uses to communicate with St. Catherine throughout the book are the tree of self love, the description of tears, and the boat of religious orders upon which the oars represent obedience.

The Dialogue  is available online through EWTN at https://www.ewtn.com/library/SOURCES/CATHDIAL.HTM

and can be located by its ISBN: 0-89555-037-7.

 Sources   

^1.  Of Siena, Catherine. The Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena. Trans. Algar                             Thorold. Rockford: Tan, 1974. Print, 11.

^2. St. Catherine of Siena Doctor of the Church at Catholic Online,                                                                        http://www.catholic.org/news/saints/story.php?id=41236

^3. Santa Catalina de Siena Doctora de la Iglesia Universal at Fe y Razon,                                                            http://www.feyrazon.org/Catalina.htm.

^4. Drawn by Love, http://www.drawnbylove.com/Vanni%20portrait%20of%20Catherine.htm.

^5. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 206.

^6. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 326

^7. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 14.

^8. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 24.

^9. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 77.

^10. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 80.

^11. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 83.

^12. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 78.

^13. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 81.

^14. Of Siena, Catherine, Dialogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena, 82.

The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity review

The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity is a Third Century account of Christian martyrdom in the Roman province of Carthage, which was mostly adapted from the diary of St. Perpetua. Although the story is short, it paints a vivid portrait of religious persecution, draconian penal codes, the resolve of Christian martyrs, and Christian martyrdom as a witness to the developing Christian faith. The diary further depicts its era's social dynamics, and, while perhaps an anachronistic opinion, contrasts social norms with a sense of gender equality among the martyrs.  

The first two chapters of the passion are the prologue explaining the purpose of preserving the narrative, and introduces the imprisoned Christians. Newer events are considered a more pertinent witness to the continued guidance of the Holy Spirit, as some may believe such experiences are limited to past generations.1 This quality sets a precedent for continuing to record and retell similar accounts in the future. The imprisoned Christians are then introduced, with Perpetua's social and familial background given the most detail.

The account of Perpetua begins in the third chapter, with her father's dismay at her conversion to Christianity, her baptism, and her arrest by Roman authorities. Throughout her trial and time in prison, Perpetua's resolve as a Christian is continuously tested by her father and Roman authorities pleading with her to renounce her conversion and offer a sacrifice in honor of the Roman Emperor. Although she is noticeably saddened by her father's emotional turmoil as a result of her ordeal, she is nonetheless resolute in faith. As a result of the Christian prisoners' willingness for to die for their faith, the military adjutant and some members of the animal game's audience became Christians.2 The final four chapters of the passion detail the martyrdom of the Christians; being whipped by gladiators, attacked by animals, and finally executed by sword.

Over the course of the account, Perpetua has multiple numinous experiences from the Holy Spirit. Some of her visions give her a glimpse at the afterlife which awaits her matyrdom; an idyllic paradise where she reunites with her slain comrades. Other visions give her an allegorical expectation of what she is to expect during her execution. Perpetua's visions prepare her for a physically cruel and painful experience, which will likewise be a spiritual battle to test her faith.

Two of Perpetua's visions are of her deceased brother Dinocrates. In the first vision, Dinocrates is disfigured and unable drink from a water supply. After Perpetua prays for him, she has a second vision in which his disfigurement is mostly healed, and he can access the previously elusive water supply. Dinocrates is not said to have been a Christian, so it is not entirely comparable, but Perpetua's second vision does bear resemblance to praying for the deceased as an indulgence for the remission of temporal punishment.3

Perpetua's account depicts a contrast in social norms between Roman and Christian social groups. In the prologue, Perpetua is said to have a mother. However, throughout her narrative, only Perpetua's father is shown to actively involve himself in attempting to have her acquitted. Perpetua's mother is absent. Furthermore, Perpetua's father's role in the narrative is treated as a figure of authority which Perpetua must defy in order to build up her courage to defy the Roman government itself.4

In contrast with Roman society, Perpetua's Christian community appears egalitarian. At no point in the story does Perpetua indicate having an inferior status to her male peers by merit of her femininity. The figure who is treated with a greater degree of reverence is Saturus, who was Perpetua's catechist.5 Saturus' superior status is shown as following the hierarchy of teacher as the superior of the pupil, rather than male as the superior of the female; which is stated in Perpetua's vision in which he was the first to ascend the ladder to paradise.6

The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity is rather short, being only 11 pages in Heffernan's book. However, Perpetua's account, as well as the additional sources edited in the narrative, provide a layered and dynamic insight to Christian life in antiquity. The ordeals of Roman persecution against Christian are illustrated in graphic detail; the motivations of Christian martyrs, and their Spiritual experiences, are articulated; social norms in Roman society and Christian communities are contrasted; and Rome is presented as an inadvertent assistant in spreading Christianity through persecution of Christians.

______________ 

1.Thomas J. Heffernan, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). 126.
2. Heffernon, Passion of Perpetua and Felicity. 132-133.
3. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 2000). §1479.
4. Kate Cooper, "A Father, a Daughter and a Procurator: Authority and Resistance in the Prison Memoir of Perpetua of Carthage." Gender & History 23, no. 3 (2011). 692.
5. Heffernon, Passion of Perpetua and Felicity. 46.
6. Heffernon, Passion of Perpetua and Felicity. 127.

Bibliography:

Catechism of the Catholic Church. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 2000.

Cooper, Kate. "A Father, a Daughter and a Procurator: Authority and Resistance in the Prison Memoir of Perpetua of Carthage." Gender & History 23, no. 3 (2011). 685-702.

Heffernan, Thomas J. The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.