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| Rene Descartes ¹ |
Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking the Truth in the Sciences acts an autobiography for Rene Descartes. In his six part adventure, he details his internal thoughts, based off of all he learns in the world. He experiences, studies, reads, and questions his reality, human and earthly reality, and the reality of God. He also goes into detail of his own personal experience both in the classroom and in the real world. He describes his experiences and thoughts on the world and how we should be able to learn and look at the world and our fellow man.
PART ONE
He breaks down his young school time, what he was taught and how he came to understand certain things. This is all based off scripture and readings of the life of older long passed men, or even the understandings and works of men who had themselves experienced the world. He tells that he studied amongst the greatest minds, and had access to books and works that not many others in his time did. While he has this access to this amazing schooling, he still felt unfulfilled with it. He felt stuck in the fact that he never went on adventures, he never experienced the very things he read about, he shared no emotional or personal connection with the workings and scriptures he was reading and studying. After he finished all of his school, it was only then that Descartes decided to completely change his mind and alter his life and study goals.
“But I believed that I had already given sufficient time to
languages, and likewise to the reading of the writings of the ancients, to
their histories and fables. For to hold converse with those of other ages and
to travel, are almost the same thing. It is useful to know something of the
manners of different nations, that we may be enabled to form a more correct
judgment regarding our own, and be prevented from thinking that everything
contrary to our customs is ridiculous and irrational, a conclusion usually come
to by those whose experience has been limited to their own country. On the
other hand, when too much time is occupied in travelling, we become strangers
to our native country; and the over curious in the customs of the past are
generally ignorant of those of the present. Besides, fictitious narratives lead
us to imagine the possibility of many events that are impossible; and even the
most faithful histories, if they do not wholly misrepresent matters, or
exaggerate their importance to render the account of them more worthy of
perusal, omit, at least, almost always the meanest and least striking of the
attendant circumstances; hence it happens that the remainder does not represent
the truth, and that such as regulate their conduct by examples drawn from this
source, are apt to fall into the extravagances of the knight-errants of
romance, and to entertain projects that exceed their powers.” ²
As long as his schooling was, it was just as simple for him to ditch the books and scriptures, and live for experience. When he began his study on people and the world, he realized that he needed to start somewhere else. He found to much in the world that he needed answers for still, so he reflected on himself, on his own inner and external being. How his being might interact with the world, and what could be trusted as truth, what might run through the minds of others in groups or individuals, as he studied his own individual self. With this, he moves into part two.
PART TWO
“In the same way I fancied that those nations which, starting
from a semi-barbarous state and advancing to civilization by slow degrees, have
had their laws successively determined, and, as it were, forced upon them
simply by experience of the hurtfulness of particular crimes and disputes,
would by this process come to be possessed of less perfect institutions than
those which, from the commencement of their association as communities, have
followed the appointments of some wise legislator. It is thus quite certain
that the constitution of the true religion, the ordinances of which are derived
from God, must be incomparably superior to that of every other.” ³
He studied the ideals and thinking of groups compared to individuals by looking at the architects who worked on some of the greatest cities in the world. He noticed that in cities where there was only one lead architect, the cities were laid out better, with the ability to support growth and advances in the society or community, such as technology. In a city with one main architect also saw sculptures and designing techniques that stayed pretty much the same through time. This was compared to the cities designed and built by multiple architects, where there was less room for growth and less regularity. In these types of cities there also tended to be multiple underlying designs that were mix and matches throughout the city. Through his study of the individual versus group architects, he was able to look at the state of the people and city through the political/governmental level.
"With this before me by way of example, I was persuaded
that it would indeed be preposterous for a private individual to think of
reforming a state by fundamentally changing it throughout, and overturning it
in order to set it up amended; and the same I thought was true of any similar
project for reforming the body of the sciences, or the order of teaching them
established in the schools..."⁴
From this, Rene is able to distinguish between the times of man, and the different roads that different men might take. Some might choose the easy paved path, the same as the majority, in hopes it will be easy, that it is less scary and goes less into the unknown. Then there is the man who might be afraid, but decides on the harder less beaten path, into the unknown. He makes note of his schooling by mentioning how he was taught.
“For my own part, I should doubtless have belonged to the
latter class, had I received instruction from but one master, or had I never
known the diversities of opinion that from time immemorial have prevailed among
men of the greatest learning. But I had become aware, even so early as during
my college life, that no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be
imagined, which has not been maintained by some one of the philosophers; and
afterwards in the course of my travels I remarked that all those whose opinions
are decidedly repugnant to ours are not in that account barbarians and savages,
but on the contrary that many of these nations make an equally good, if not better,
use of their reason than we do.”⁵
He makes mention, continuing on, that he felt disappointed and failed by the teachings of the ancients. That for all their knowledge written down in text and books, it did not portray the true human, the true ability of life and experience. He also speaks of four resolutions he came to: one being to never accept anything that was not clearly defined or known, as truth. The second being to divide any difficulties into as many parts as possible so they might be examined in greater depth. Thirdly, to conduct and order his thoughts in such a way so that slowly he could be able to come to a more complex knowledge. He applies this third one to objects and things that do not even correspond to assignment of numbers or sequence. Finally, he says he needs to make sure every enumeration be as complete as possible, so that there could be nothing omitted. He applies these four resolutions to scientific and mathematical objects, understanding them and how they can be applied in the world.
PART THREE
He begins part three with three maxims of his:
1) To obey laws and customs of his country, including sticking to the main faith and keeping moderate opinions. To be aware of the traditions and opinions of other races such as Persians and Chinese whom he mentions as examples.
2) To remain firm and absolute in his action, and to not question or doubt his actions/opinions. To not be like a traveler who never changes their course, to not choose the easiest and best path, but to go out and experience.
3) Wish to understand and “conquer” oneself (himself).To not focus on money or wealth, to focus his desires on the order of
the world, how it works, peoples thoughts, along with the failures and
successes of people.
(4) “…I may state
that it was my conviction that I could not do better than continue in that in
which I was engaged, viz., in devoting my whole life to the culture of my
reason, and in making the greatest progress I was able in the knowledge of
truth, on the principles of the method which I had prescribed to myself.”⁶
He states his own goal of
self-instruction, calling out his own ability to expand and go beyond himself,
to not stick to the ideas of one person or even just to himself. He took 9 years out of his life to travel and learn, to socialize with his fellow man and expand beyond himself. Rather than be like an actor in a play, he wished to be the spectator in the audience.
“…I reserved some hours from time
to time which I expressly devoted to the employment of the method in the
solution of mathematical difficulties, or even in the solution likewise of some
questions belonging to other sciences, but which, by my having detached them
from such principles of these sciences as were of inadequate certainty, were
rendered almost mathematical: the truth of this will be manifest from the
numerous examples contained in this volume.” ⁷
Unfortunately for Descartes, after the 9 years spent traveling and experiencing, he felt unfulfilled once more. He deemed the task of what he had set out to accomplish, as much more difficult than he originally imaged.
PART FOUR
Rene changed his approach to his
mission from here on out:
“…I ought to reject as absolutely false all opinions in regard to
which I could suppose the least ground for doubt, in order to ascertain whether
after that there remained aught in my belief that was wholly indubitable.”⁸
While he wished to remain open to any and
all “truths”, he would consider everything as a falsehood unless there was
absolute truth. The only absolute truth he believed
in was himself, his ability to question the truth, etc. accept himself and
remain firm in his belief so much so that no one could shake it from him (his
first principle of Philosophy).
“And as I observed that in the words I think,
therefore I am, there is nothing at all which gives me assurance of their truth
beyond this, that I see very clearly that in order to think it is necessary to
exist, I concluded that I might take, as a general rule, the principle, that
all the things which we very clearly and distinctly conceive are true, only
observing, however, that there is some difficulty in rightly determining the
objects which we distinctly conceive.”⁹
He concluded that his being is not perfect, then
inquired of anything more perfect then he, admitting the possibility of imperfection
in himself, and essentially all of mankind. He came to another conclusion that, as being an imperfect creature, and being able to acknowledge imperfection, meant
that there had to be a perfect being with which he was dependent. It called for a higher being, that mankind depended upon, in order for our imperfect nature to exist.
“Thus I perceived that doubt, inconstancy, sadness, and
such like, could not be found in God, since I myself would have been happy to
be free from them. Besides, I had ideas of many sensible and corporeal things;
for although I might suppose that I was dreaming, and that all which I saw or
imagined was false, I could not, nevertheless, deny that the ideas were in
reality in my thoughts." ¹º
From here Descartes thought on the demonstrations of objects and people, recognizing parts and pieces of people and objects. He even talks of how the existence of the triangle in geometry can be taken apart as a physical matter, but also demonstrate its ability to exist in a non-material idea/form. He mentions how as humans, we can only be sure of certain things, and acknowledge and understand their existence, because God exists. Everything proceeds from God. We would have no ground or ability to account for the true
existence of things if there were no perfect being in which they possessed the
ability to exist. Descartes gives the idea of dreams (night and day dreams) as an
example of not being sure of anything. He states that like the sun, we cannot
truly be sure of the distance or length or anything of the sun just from what
we perceive of it from a distance. While we cannot be sure of these things, we acknowledge and understand their existence.
PART FIVE
Descartes stills holds true to his original statement of believing in
oneself, and God of course in this part.
“...and yet I venture to state that not only have I
found means to satisfy myself in a short time on all the principal difficulties
which are usually treated of in philosophy, but I have also observed certain
laws established in nature by God in such a manner, and of which he has impressed
on our minds such notions, that after we have reflected sufficiently upon
these, we cannot doubt that they are accurately observed in all that exists or
takes place in the world and farther, by considering the concatenation of these
laws, it appears to me that I have discovered many truths more useful and more
important than all I had before learned, or even had expected to learn.”¹¹
He states an ideal of light that can be transposed over all
different types of learning and teachings, stating it as a basic natural law
ideal, where it can be used and talked about in many forms rather than
conforming to just one particular ideology or belief.
“so that even although he had from the beginning given it no
other form than that of chaos, provided only he had established certain laws of
nature, and had lent it his concurrence to enable it to act as it is wont to
do, it may be believed, without discredit to the miracle of creation, that, in
this way alone, things purely material might, in course of time, have become
such as we observe them at present; and their nature is much more easily
conceived when they are beheld coming in this manner gradually into existence,
than when they are only considered as produced at once in a finished and
perfect state.”¹²
He moves from non-living objects (creations) to plants, animals,
and man. Speaking of the created body of man from God, the rational soul, and he goes into some depth of how intricate the body of man is. Goes into length about the different anatomy parts of both
animals and humans. He makes his point and goal here of showing how amazing the
anatomy of life is, and how complex and miraculously it works to keep us alive
and living, blood pumping and flowing, air coming and going, etc.
“But lest those who are ignorant of the force of
mathematical demonstrations and who are not accustomed to distinguish true
reasons from mere verisimilitudes, should venture. without examination, to deny
what has been said, I wish it to be considered that the motion which I have now
explained follows as necessarily from the very arrangement of the parts, which
may be observed in the heart by the eye alone, and from the heat which may be felt
with the fingers, and from the nature of the blood as learned from experience,
as does the motion of a clock from the power, the situation, and shape of its
counterweights and wheels.”¹³
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| Diagram of the heart ¹³ |
With all of this, he also manages to question much of the scientists who have made many of these discoveries. Some of his good questions are as follow:
“And why should the left cavity of
the heart and the great artery be wider and larger than the right cavity and
the arterial vein, were it not that the blood of the venous artery, having only
been in the lungs after it has passed through the heart, is thinner, and
rarefies more readily, and in a higher degree, than the blood which proceeds
immediately from the hollow vein? And what can physicians conjecture from
feeling the pulse unless they know that according as the blood changes its
nature it can be rarefied by the warmth of the heart, in a higher or lower
degree, and more or less quickly than before? And if it be inquired how this
heat is communicated to the other members, must it not be admitted that this is
effected by means of the blood, which, passing through the heart, is there
heated anew, and thence diffused over all the body?”¹⁴
Since he speaks of regular human life, with all its miraculous abilities, he also speaks of artificial life. He applies the concept of two tests to any artificial
intelligent life like a machine or “robot”
1.) Robots are not capable of having the ability to truly express themselves as humans can: being hurt,
expressing emotion, etc. 2.) They also do not have the ability to act out actions from which they have not the
appropriate organ.
“...it could be discovered that they did not act from knowledge,
but solely from the disposition of their organs: for while reason is an
universal instrument that is alike available on every occasion, these organs,
on the contrary, need a particular arrangement for each particular action;
whence it must be morally impossible that there should exist in any machine a
diversity of organs sufficient to enable it to act in all the occurrences of
life, in the way in which our reason enables us to act.”¹⁵
Descartes finishes part five by confirming the idea that the reasonable
(rational) soul of man must be a separate created identity to all matter:
“...that
it be lodged in the human body exactly like a pilot in a ship, unless perhaps
to move its members, but that it is necessary for it to be joined and united
more closely to the body, in order to have sensations and appetites similar to
ours, and thus constitute a real man.”¹⁶
PART SIX
After three years of writing and planning, Rene Descartes decided not to publish his works and experiences. He came to this conclusion for multiple reasons, one of them being his wish not to insult or do damage to anyone who might have been looking to publish any work that would be contradicted by his own. He is a man, as seen from his Discourse on the Method, who cares more for the greater good and for God than over taking the glory for himself and being the star of a show. The greater good of mankind moving forward is the emphasis of his second
paragraph:
“But since I designed to employ my whole life in the search
after so necessary a science, and since I had fallen in with a path which seems
to me such, that if anyone follow it he must inevitably reach the end desired,
unless he be hindered either by the shortness of life or the want of
experiments, I judged that there could be no more effectual provision against
these two impediments than if I were faithfully to communicate to the public
all the little I might myself have found, and incite men of superior genius to
strive to proceed farther, by contributing, each according to his inclination
and ability, to the experiments which it would be necessary to make, and also
by informing the public of all they might discover, so that, by the last
beginning where those before them had left off, and thus connecting the lives
and labours of many, we might collectively proceed much farther than each by
himself could do.” ¹⁷
Compared to the many vast ideas and principles that had already been created and could be created in nature, he felt that his ideas where very simplistic and overall general. He
concludes his learning of the sciences with 5-6 principles and makes point to
mention that he has not truly come across any dispute with other writers or
critics, at least non that made his arguments and work devalued. While this was the case for Descartes, he spared no expense in adding in a bit of criticism for how many in his world thought. Seemingly mocks those who study just for the glory of being
the person knowing, rather than the glory of having learned and understanding,
to teach others. Shows his humility by stating that he refrained from
publishing for even more reasons, not due to his unsureness of being
reciprocated by the people, but because he is unsure of his own words and that
he would not want credit, or an over extensive amount of credit for his
findings and works.
“Their
fashion of philosophizing, however, is well suited to persons whose abilities
fall below mediocrity; for the obscurity of the distinctions and principles of
which they make use enables them to speak of all things with as much confidence
as if they really knew them, and to defend all that they say on any subject
against the most subtle and skilful, without its being possible for any one to
convict them of error. In this they seem to me to be like a blind man, who, in
order to fight on equal terms with a person that sees, should have made him
descend to the bottom of an intensely dark cave: and I may say that such
persons have an interest in my refraining from publishing the principles of the
philosophy of which I make use; “¹⁸
As the philosopher he was and lives on to be today, he remained humble throughout his years of learning and studying. So humble in fact, that he touches on his own humility in the last part.
“The other reason that has determined me to commit to
writing these specimens of philosophy is, that I am becoming daily more and
more alive to the delay which my design of self-instruction suffers, for want
of the infinity of experiments I require, and which it is impossible for me to
make without the assistance of others: and, without flattering myself so much
as to expect the public to take a large share in my interests, I am yet
unwilling to be found so far wanting in the duty I owe to myself, as to give
occasion to those who shall survive me to make it matter of reproach against me
some day, that I might have left them many things in a much more perfect state
than I have done, had I not too much neglected to make them aware of the ways
in which they could have promoted the accomplishment of my designs.”¹⁹
Rene Descartes consideres his findings to be truths not hypotheses or
possibilities, but realities that he has found exist. He has given proof time and time again of how we cannot be sure of much in our life as man, but if there was one thing we could be sure of, is ourselves and our correct belief and faith in God.
“In conclusion, I am unwilling here to say anything very
specific of the progress which I expect to make for the future in the sciences,
or to bind myself to the public by any promise which I am not certain of being
able to fulfil; but this only will I say, that I have resolved to devote what
time I may still have to live to no other occupation than that of endeavouring
to acquire some knowledge of Nature, which shall be of such a kind as to enable
us therefrom to deduce rules in medicine of greater certainty than those at
present in use; and that my inclination is so much opposed to all other
pursuits, especially to such as cannot be useful to some without being hurtful to
others, that if, by any circumstances, I had been constrained to engage in
such, I do not believe that I should have been able to succeed.” ²⁰
Bibliography
² Rene Descartes, “Discourse on the Method
of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking the Truth in the Sciences”, 1635, P. 1,
Para. 8
³ IBID, P. 2, Para. 1
⁴ IBID, P. 2, Para. 2
⁵ IBID, P. 2, Para. 4
⁶ IBID, P. 3, Para. 4
⁷ IBID, P. 3, Para. 6
⁸ IBID, P. 4, Para. 1
⁹ IBID
¹⁰ IBID, P. 4, Para. 4
¹¹ IBID, P. 5, Para. 1
¹² IBID, P. 5, Para. 5
¹⁴ IBID, P. 5, para. 7
¹⁵ IBID
¹⁶ IBID
¹⁷ IBID, P. 6, Para. 2
¹⁸ IBID, P. 6, Para. 5
¹⁹ IBID, P. 6, Para. 8
²⁰ IBID, P. 6, Para. 12
