Lumen Gentium and its Effects

"Lumen gentium Christus," png, https://es.wikipedia.org.

Lumen Gentium affects the Church today. It was written after the Second Vatican Council and contains the teaching of the Catholic Church clarified during the council. The newly defined Church teachings lead to many changes which were received in both positive and negative ways. These changes have a role in how the world and Church are today.

 

Lumen Gentium is a Dogmatic Constitution, written in 1964 and promulgated by Pope Saint Paul VI. Lumen Gentium is about the Church’s role in the world in accordance with the discussions during Vatican II. It is divided into eight chapters. The chapters are on the mystery of the Church, the people of God, the hierarchical structure of the Church, the laity, the universal call to holiness, the religious, eschatological nature of the Church, and Mary.[1] Each chapter reveals what the Church is, its members’ roles, both the laity and religious, the three parts of the Church, and Mary’s role in the Church.

After Lumen Gentium was announced, many changes occurred. One of the many positive changes was the dialogue between the priest and the congregation during Mass. This change brought about the congregation’s active participation at Mass. A man stated, “People realized that they were supposed to be paying attention to what the priest was doing.”[2] Before Vatican II, the people would be doing their own prayers and not pay attention to the priest.[3] With this new dialogue between the priest and the people, one would more likely participate during Mass and be able to become closer to Christ, one “purpose of the liturgical reform.”[4]

Like all changes, people reacted both positively and negatively to the liturgical reform. One man stated that “the mass” became “more meaningful to the man in the pew.”[5] People, especially those who did not know Latin, were able to understand what was happening during the Mass. Another man, however, stated that his father “was so depressed about having to sing Protestant hymns and respond in church.”[6]

Another change that happened after the writing of Lumen Gentium is the attitude Catholics must have toward people of other faiths. By saying that the Muslims are included in “the plan of salvation,”[7] the Catholic Church states that its members should not treat others as people with no hope of salvation. Catholics should, rather, strive to carry out the mission the Lord asked them to fulfill before He ascended into heaven, to preach the Gospel to all nations. “…[I]t is possible for non-Christians to be saved.”[8] It is true, even more so, for non-Catholic Christians for they are closer to the Catholic Church because they “are joined… in baptism and share other ecclesial elements with the Roman Catholic Church.”[9]

 

The Church is affected by Lumen Gentium. Lumen Gentium brought about many changes in the Church. One change is the participation of the congregation during Mass. The other change is on how Catholics should treat people of other faiths. Both changes brought about positive results. These results changed how the Church and world of today.

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[1] Pope Paul VI, Dogmatic Constitution on Lumen Gentium (21 November 1964).

[2] U. S. Catholic, “The times they were a’changing,” at U.S. Catholic (17 June 2011), at uscatholic.org.

[3] U. S. Catholic, “The times they were a’changing.”

[4] George Dugan, “U. S. Catholics Begin Reforms in the Mass,” at The New York Times (30 November 1964) at wwwnytimes.com.

[5] George Dugan, “U. S. Catholics Begin Reforms in the Mass.”

[6] U. S. Catholic, “The times they were a’changing.”

[7] Lumen Gentium, §16.

[8] Edward T. Ulrich, “The Catholic Church and the Non-Christian World: Teaching Lumen Gentium §16 and Nostra Aetate,” The Journal of Interreligious Studies 26 (2019), 19.

[9] Geertjan Zuijdwegt, “Salvation and the church: Feeney, Fenton and the making of Luman gentium,” Louvain Studies 37, no. 2 (2013), 176.

Book Review on Saint Francis de Sales’ Introduction to the Devout Life

"San Francisco de Sales," png, https://www.discerninghearts.com.

Saint Francis de Sales’ Introduction to the Devout Life is a book that can be used a guide all lay people to leading a devout life no matter what vocation in life they are called to. Saint Francis de Sales, a French bishop from the late 1600s and Doctor of the Church, initially wrote this book for one noblewoman desiring to live a devout life and later for all people wishing to live a devout life. As its title reveals, this book is an introduction to an ideal devout life. Saint Francis de Sales divides the book into five parts. Each part focuses on different aspects that lead to living a devout life. The first part is about how to change one’s desire to live a devout life into a resolve. The second is on prayer and the sacrament, and the third is on living out virtue. The next two parts focus on maintaining one’s resolve by giving ways to “overcome[e] temptations” and renew one’s resolve.[1] Each part is essential for the whole book. Neglecting one part would lead to being unable to live a devout life with all the help necessary to continue. Since this book was made during the late 1600s, it uses old English words, making it a medium reading level book. However, if one can understand old English well, it is fairly easy to read. During the years after its publication, the Introduction made such a great impact on people of the time and after that time that there are even “adaptations of his text for Protestant devotion.”[2]

Like how the Introduction impacted the lives of people during the 1600s, it helped me gain more knowledge about how to live a holy life. One point that specifically interested me is the topic of humility, which is covered in at least four chapters. In the chapter entitled, “On Exterior Humility,” I was immediately caught by how logical it is that “…to receive God’s Grace in our hearts, they must be as empty vessels–not filled with self-esteem.”[3] This shows how essential humility is in a devout life. Without being empty or detached from the matters of this world, we cannot begin to attach ourselves to God or fill ourselves with what God wants to give us. Compared to Saint Francis de Sales’ other famous work, Treatise on the Love of God, which speaks of God’s love as a mother and child relationship, the Introduction does not just talk about the love of God but also other virtues such as patience and obedience.[4] I highly recommend reading this book for, like me, it can better help you lead a devout life and aid to persevere it in a world full of temptations.

 

Publisher: Random House

Price: $15.00

Year of Publication: 2002

ISBN: 978-0-375-72562-3

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[1] Edward M. Egan, preface to Introduction to the Devout Life (New York: Random House, 2002), xix.

[2] Mary Hardy, “The seventeenth-century English and Scottish reception of Francis de Sales’ An Introduction to a Devout Life,” British Catholic History 33, no. 2 (2016), 230.

[3] Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life (New York: Random House, 2002), 95-96.

[4] Suzanne Toczyski, “'Blessed the Breasts at Which You Nursed': Mother-Child Intimacy in St. Francis de Sales' Treatise on the Love of God,” Spiritus 15, no. 2 (2015), 191.

Book Review: St. Thomas More's "Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation"

    St. Thomas More’s Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation was penned by the saint as he was imprisoned in the Tower of London and awaiting execution in the year 1534. The book is comprised of a dialogue between two protagonists: Anthony, an old man, and his nephew Vincent. The setting is in Hungary between 1527 and 1528, just before to the final invasion of Hungary by the Turks. The book is a dialogue not just between an uncle and nephew, but between tribulation and consolation, fear and comfort, anxiety and peace. The dialogue begins by Vincent expressing worry to his uncle Anthony over the threats of invasion that have been posed by the Turks. Among his greatest fears is that the Turkish forces will require everyone to reject their Christian faith in order to survive. With heavy heart he beseeches his uncle to “give us, while God lendeth you to us, such plenty of your comforting counsel as I may write and keep with us.”[1] Anthony answers Vincent with kindness, drawing his attention to some of the past Turkish victories and reminding Vincent that there are greater wrongs and concerns than the Turks, primarily sin and the fear of Hell. Nevertheless, Anthony sets out to reason through the nature of consolation and of tribulation in order to bring what peace he can to his nephew. 

 Anthony draws from the depths of ancient moral philosophy to unveil the definition of tribulation, considering it a “kind of grief, either pain of the body or heaviness of the mind.”[2] The ancients tried to assuage this tribulation, but fell short in their approaches to comfort because they lacked the consolation of a strong faith in Christ the Divine Physician, a faith which is God’s gift to man. Anthony goes on to explain that the first source of comfort that is to be found in tribulation is the longing to be comforted by God. Some seek worldly comfort, others a higher one. This comfort is not always received, because at times God wishes certain individuals to undergo a time of tribulation. Even so, when we understand that God ordains all things for our greater good, we find comfort even in times of trial. Anthony claims that tribulation is (1) brought on through our own fault, (2) sent by God in punishment for sin or to prevent sin, or (3) sent as a test of virtue and merit; thus it is medicinal, in a sense.

    With the proper disposition, tribulation can not only purify our sin, but also merit eternal reward. Anthony actually perceives tribulation as an advantage over those whose lives are free from trial, for they never experience true comfort either. “God loves those he chastiseth,” [3] and while pleasure is not always inferior nor tribulation superior, God gives both to the just and the unjust.  Tribulation is at times sent to teach us how to turn to God like children and pray for relief. While Vincent questions how Anthony can value tribulation over prosperity, since neither are good or bad by nature, Anthony explains that often the prayers of tribulation are more pleasing to God’s ear than the lengthy verses of those comfortably situated.

    As the dialogue continues, Anthony addresses temptation. He speaks of temptation as a comfort when man, being challenged, perseveres through God’s sustenance. He describes also the struggle of scrupulosity, or pusillanimity and the temptations which arise. Anthony proceeds to relay several stories embodying the various temptations a person may undergo, from loss of earthly things, titles and authority to bodily pain and suffering. Vincent comes to recognize that he will not renounce his faith even in the face of the Turks, although he still fears bodily pain. Anthony counters with the declaration that all men are indeed prisoners in a real prison – the prison of the world - who cannot escape death. We are not confined because there is no escape; we forget our imprisonment and even God, which brings about tribulation. Many Christians take on these sufferings willingly, which are in reality miniscule compared with the sufferings of Christ.[4] Indeed, Anthony claims that the devout Christian will not fear death itself because of the glorious death of Christ and the martyrdom of the saints. He encourages Vincent to take heart in this, and not to renounce Christ to avoid suffering, for the pains of Hell will outweigh any earthly persecution. Describing the Passion of Christ, Anthony explains how our love for Him will inspire our hearts to be ready even to die for Him. “Our captain Christ is with us,” Anthony declares, “and…we shall fight with the strength of him who hath vanquished [the devil] already.”[5] The book concludes as Anthony and Vincent promise to pray for one another, and to stand strong in the face of any tribulations which may come, enduring all for the glory of God.

    This image of Christ as captain, and each one of us falling into line behind Him, should be one of comfort to us all. In More’s Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation, he captures in an intimate setting the worries that most of us face concerning pain and suffering, temptation, evil, and death. Although veiled in old English, More uses captivating imagery to share a powerful message of faith, trust, and patience through trial and comfort alike, virtues he all must certainly have striven to exemplify as he anticipated his own death. This book is an excellent read for all who seek the answers to tribulation in the life of every individual Christian.

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[1] St. Thomas More, Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation (Aeterna Press, London: 2015) 5.

[2] More, Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation, 6.

[3] More, Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation, 27.

[4] More, Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation, 172-175.

[5] More, Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation, 201.

The Council of Trent

    The Council of Trent was convened in the year 1545 (1545-1563) by Pope Paul III. The purpose of the council was to guide reform within the church, particularly in the wake of the Protestant Reformation. Cognizant that the Protestant Reformation was a well-fueled fire, leaders of the Church determined to provide a clear voice of Catholic teaching and doctrine amidst the prevalent confusion. The council took place over the course of eighteen years, addressing primarily areas of discipline and doctrine. It was disrupted multiple times, first due to concern for the plague (the Black Death), the council was also halted by political conquests and changes in papal authority. [1] Finally reconvened in January of 1562 by Pope Pius IV, the council was brought to an end nearly two years later, adjourning on December 4, 1563. Even while the Council was in progress it produced positive results, and its decrees took hold throughout the Church in proceeding years.

The Council of Trent boldly stepped in to clarify the Catholic doctrines that had been called into question by Protestant reformers. It can be separated into three clear periods, which carried their own unique set of characteristics. Initially, the hope in calling the council to order was conciliation between the Protestant Reformers and the Catholic Church. These intentions marked the first period of the council (1545-1547), which called both for reform and clarification of doctrine. Among its contributions, the first period confirmed the number of books in the Old and New Testament as well as the Vulgate translation, established doctrinal decrees on the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, and taught man’s justification by faith demonstrated both through faith and works.[2] In the second period which ran from 1551-1552, attending Protestants demanded that all of the doctrinal decisions from the first period be readdressed, in addition to the question of allegiance to the pope and the pope’s authority. By the third period of the council (1562-1563), it was apparent that reconciliation between the Protestants and Catholics was unlikely. Instead, the council doubled down on defining key Catholic doctrines particularly pertaining to the liturgy, such as the transubstantiation and the sacrificial nature of the Mass.

    Overall, the contributions of the Council of Trent were vast and vitally specific amidst the surrounding religious confusion. Particularly centered on clarifications surrounding the liturgy, the council focused on aspects such as liturgical prayers and music, the veneration of sacred images, and the nature of the Mass as a perpetuation of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross.[3] Proper veneration of, and devotion to, Mary was established as well. The council also addressed the future education of the clergy and the establishment of seminaries. Such a move, in time, purified the Catholic diocesan clergy who arose in service to the Church. The council spoke out against certain abuses which had plagued the Church, namely the selling of indulgences as well as the financial abuse rampant throughout every level of the ecclesial hierarchy. A consolidated, clarified doctrine arose from the council, quelling much of the ambiguity and false doctrine that had arisen throughout the Protestant Reformation. In summary, the Council of Trent played a fundamental role in the Counter-Reformation and the renewal of the Church across Europe, and as a newfound devotion to Mary and the saints, Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, and frequent reception of Holy Communion blossomed forth, its impact would be deep and lasting.[4]

 

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[1] Joseph Francis Kelly, The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History (Liturgical Press, 2009), 133-134.

[2] John Vidmar, OP, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (New York: Paulist Press, 2014), 81.

[3] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages, 81.

[4] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages, 81.

Veterum Sapientia: A Forgotten History

— JESUS NAZARENUS REX JUDÆORUM —

Diego Velázquez, Christ Crucified (cropped), 1632

" There are three sacred languages: Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, which are the most outstanding in the entire world. For in these three languages, the case of the Lord was written upon the cross by Pontius Pilate. For this reason, and on account of the obscurity of Sacred Scriptures, the understanding of these three languages is necessary so that you may reference one of the others if an expression in one of the languages presents some doubt to your mind about the meaning of a word or its interpretation. "

—    St. Isidore of Seville, Etymologies, Book IX

Sr. Janet & Pope John

    In 2015, Sr. Janet Mead, of the Sisters of Mercy, was inducted into the South Australian Music Hall of Fame. Sr. Janet was made internationally famous for signing "The Lord's Prayer" – a pop rock setting of the English Pater Noster, which hit #4 on the Billboard's Hot 100 list during Holy Week of 1974.[1] (Which, anecdotally, was a big deal.) But how does all this appertain to a little-known Apostolic Constitution? To immediately clarify: this blog entry will certainly not be a tirade against the groovy music trending in 70's. Rather, our attention to Sr. Janet here is due to something she said during her 2015 induction speech, something which the reader might find rather curious, or, perhaps, rather common:

"In the 60's, a great change happened in the Church: Pope John XXIII stopped Latin being used—as it was, by that time, very unintelligible to the people, well, it had been before too, but we suddenly realized it. He said that the Mass should be much more reflective of people's lives so that they felt support in their prayer..."[2]  

 

 

Cover of the 45 RPM picture sleeve for "The Lord's Prayer" Single by Sister Janet Mead, 1973

    As an aside: Unfortunately, we cannot speak to her second claim (that St. John XXIII said "that the Mass should be much more... etc."), firstly, because this exceeds the limits of this present post, and, secondly, because this writer simply cannot find where Pope John XXIII may have said anything to this effect.* So much for the tangential.

Pope John XXIII: Latin's Greatest Enemy?

    Returning to Sr. Janet's first point: Is what she says true? Did Pope John XXIII 'stop Latin being used' in the liturgy or otherwise? Ostensibly – depending on the hearers knowledge of ecclesiastical affairs – this claim could seem plausible: common knowledge would suggest that some time before and even into John XXIII's pontificate, Latin was practically the exclusive norm in the Church's** liturgies, ceremonies, and governance, and then, sometime after it, Latin all but disappeared from the Church. Well, if Latin has been suppressed in the Church, one will not find it in any of the pontifical acts of St. John XXIII. In fact, what one does find there, in the history of his pontificate, and indelibly written into the Acts of the Holy See, is his Apostolic Constitution Veterum Sapientia, On the Promotion of the Study of Latin, which stands directly opposed to any such claim that he may have done away with Latin, or that he could have even coherently entertained any sentiments ordered in such a direction.

Pope John XXIII, 24th April 1962

The Document Briefly Examined

    If Pope Paul VI's encyclical letter Humanae Vitae is, as some say, the most rejected papal document of recent history (arguably of all time, depending on the parameters of the comparison) – some figures claim that, of "Western European and American Catholics, 80%... have themselves rejected the teaching of Humanae Vitae"[3] – then, perhaps, John XXIII's Apostolic Constitution Veterum Sapientia is the most ignored papal document of recent history—certainly of any Apostolic Constitution in recent history. At barely five pages long, the reader is mightily encouraged to read the document in full at their convenience—offering it as an act of reparation for the popular disregard it has hitherto received might even prove meritorious. Nonetheless, let us here briefly examine the document in question.

    John XXIII begins by praising Greek and Latin, and "the other venerable languages, which flourished in the East,"[4] calling them "a vesture of gold," "in which wisdom itself is cloaked."[5] But, among these, he gives pride of place to Latin as "the rightful language of the Apostolic See."[6] He then recapitulates the conclusions of his predecessor, Pius XI, from his apostolic letter Officiorum Omnium, which:

"indicated three qualities of the Latin language which harmonize to a remarkable degree with the Church’s nature. For the Church, precisely because it embraces all nations and is destined to endure until the end of time… of its very nature requires a language which is universal, immutable, and non-vernacular."[7] 

The Supreme Pontiff then explains how Latin so excellently fulfills each of these needs of the Church. Notably, he emphasizes:

"Of its very nature Latin is most suitable for promoting every form of culture among peoples. It gives rise to no jealousies. It does not favor any one nation, but presents itself with equal impartiality to all and is equally acceptable to all."[8]   

Taken together with the fact that he he quotes Pius XII, who called Latin "a treasure... of incomparable worth"[9], and considering how valiantly Pius XII fought against the evils of warring nations during his own pontificate, this constitutes a strong case for the value of Latin as a force for unity. But Pius XII himself did not limit the value of Latin to its unifying aspect:

“The use of the Latin language prevailing in a great part of the Church affords at once an imposing sign of unity and an effective safeguard against the corruption of true doctrine.”[10]

    To ensure that this great treasure would continue to endure – a treasure, again, which the Church "of its very nature requires," as Pius XI put it – John XXIII turned to the force of law: "We now, in the full consciousness of Our Office and in virtue of Our authority, decree and command the following:" (to mention but a few of his commands)

• "Bishops and superiors-general of religious orders... shall be on their guard lest anyone under their jurisdiction, eager for revolutionary changes, writes against the use of Latin in the teaching of the higher sacred studies or in the Liturgy, or through prejudice makes light of the Holy See’s will in this regard or interprets it falsely."[11]
• "No one is to be admitted to the study of philosophy or theology except he be thoroughly grounded in this language and capable of using it."[12]
• "The major sacred sciences shall be taught in Latin... Hence professors of these sciences in universities or seminaries are required to speak Latin and to make use of textbooks written in Latin. If ignorance of Latin makes it difficult for some to obey these instructions, they shall gradually be replaced by professors who are suited to this task."[13]

    This is, to put it lightly, a tall order—but an order nonetheless. Yet so neglected was this papal document that people, such as Sr. Janet, could confidently say that John XXIII had, somehow, somewhere, legislated something to the exact opposite effect of what he had actually and solemnly promulgated for the good of the Church. The document was not, however, ignored by all. At end of his list of legislations, John XXIII added: "We further commission the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities to prepare a syllabus for the teaching of Latin which all shall faithfully observe..."[14] And this Congregation faithfully obeyed, producing the Ordinationes ad Constitutionem Apostolicam 'Veterum Sapientia' Rite Exsequendam.[15] Beyond this, however, few more if any obeyed, and now, according to the Veterum Sapientia Institute, "there are currently no seminaries or houses of formation at all that follow Veterum Sapientia and the Ordinationes to the letter."[16]

By an Unknown French master, Christ Teaching his Disciples to Pray, 13th c.

Veterum Sapientia and the Church Today

    Surely, by now – contrary as it is to current practice – this document, or its pertinent parts, must have been suppressed, no? Well, as of yet, no, it has certainly not been, and – with the exception of the mandatory use of Latin in the Liturgy, presupposed at the time of its promulgation – it is, in fact, still entirely in force (so far as this author can tell)—though it is by no means enforced. Take, for example, the current Code of Canon Law, promulgated in 1983: Canon 249 states that: "The program of priestly formation is to provide that students not only are carefully taught their native language but also understand Latin well..."[17] Ironically, this English excerpt from the Vatican website is a poor translation of the Latin text of the Code: "linguam latinam bene calleant."[18] A better translation would be "well skilled," or even "well calloused" in the Latin language, not merely being able to understand it well.

    As for the use of Latin in the Liturgy – a sensitive subject these days – it has certainly not yet been suppressed. Moreover, it should suffice to say that the Missale Romanum: Editio Typica Tertia and the Liturgia Horarum Iuxta Ritum Romanum are, as their names suggest, still promulgated (by the Latin Patriarch for the Roman Rite) in Latin.

— Laudetur Iesus Christus in Saecula Saeculorum —

 

_____________________________________________________

NOTES:

*In all sincerity, the author would appreciate being directed to such a statement of John XXIII, if it does, in fact, exist—but the author's assumption is that this can only be found appended to Pope John XXIII's suppression of Latin.

**To clarify, when we are here speaking of "the Church" and her use of Latin, the author is not referring to the other particular churches in communion with Rome, but to the Latin Church, under the Latin Patriarch.

WORKS CITED:

*An asterisk denotes that this source was found via the HACS Library

1. "The Hot 100," at Billboard, at https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100/1974-04-12/

2. SA Music Hall of Fame, "Sister Janet Mead - SA Music Hall of Fame Induction" at YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8aoCmVcM7x0

3. *“Unholy Struggle with Third World Genie.” Lancet, vol. 342, no. 8869, Aug. 1993, p. 447. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)91584-9.

4. John XXIII, Apostolic Constitution on the Promotion of the Study of Latin Veterum Sapientia (22 February 1962), at www.papalencyclicals.net

5. Veterum Sapientia

6. Veterum Sapientia

7. Veterum Sapientia

8. Veterum Sapientia

9. Veterum Sapientia

10. Pius XII, Encyclical on the Sacred Liturgy Mediator Dei (20 November 1947), at vatican.va.

11. Veterum Sapientia

12. Veterum Sapientia

13. Veterum Sapientia

14. Veterum Sapientia

15. *Sacra Congregatio De Seminariis Et Studiorum Universitatibus: Ordinationes Ad Constitutionem Apostolicam ‘Veterum Sapientia’ Rite Exsequendam.” Revista Española de Derecho Canónico, vol. 17, no. 50, May 1962, pp. 435–60. EBSCOhost, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,cpid&custid=s9245834&db=lsdar&AN=ATLAiGFE171130001595&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

16. "Míssio," at Veterum Sapientia Institute, at https://veterumsapientia.org/mission/

17. Code of Canon Law, Can. 249, at vatican.va.

18. Codex Iuris Canonici, Can. 249.

Pope St. John Paul II

 The Modern Age of the Church has seen many challenges as well as several dynamic and impactful members. Among these is JPII, known for his Papacy lasting from 1978-2005 and his role in the Sexual Revolution. 

Karol Wojtyla was born in Krakow, Poland in 1920. He was raised in a Catholic and military family. Karol faced a rough youth, losing his mother at a young age and living through the horrors of World War II. In 1944, after losing his father, he joined a school of Theology with the intention of becoming a priest. "In December 1945, he received the two (final) minor orders of exorcist and acolyte."[1] He was ordained a priest in 1946. As a new priest he served as a professor, wrote books, and composed and acted in plays. 

In 1958 Father Karol became a bishop. He was a stellar philosopher and easily reached the youth and married couples. He wrote several books including Love and Responsibility regarding a philosophical look at love and its opposite, the utilitarian mindset. "As a young bishop Karol Wojtyla had participated in the Second Vatican Council, which deeply influenced his life and work."[2] After the death of Pope John I, Bishop Karol would become Pope John Paul II in 1978. 

As a pope, St. John Paul II was revolutionary. To name a few of his accomplishments he wrote 14 encyclical letters, founded World Youth Day, enabled the production of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, and gave 129 audiences on sexuality which became known as Theology of the Body. "A key to much of his thought was the inherent dignity of each human person, a concept that is at the heart of the pro-life movement and all Catholic social teaching."[3] 

JPII's life exuded holiness and inspiration. It is no surprise that less than twenty years later this pope was declared a saint, for he made contributions to the Body of Christ which are immeasurable. One instance of particular holiness which impacted the world was when "John Paul II himself gave an example of forgiveness when he visited and forgave the young man, Mehmet Ali Agca, who attempted to assassinate him in 1981."[4] 

The list of ways which this great pope and saint have impacted not only the Catholic Church but the world is immeasurable. "Pope John Paul II confronted confusion with truth, disunity with charity and fear with faith and hope."[5] By living first a life of suffering, surrender and virtue, this pope was able to aid Christians during his life time and even still is today as we struggle in the ever secularizing society.  

[1] George E. Stanley, Pope John Paul II (New York, NY: Aladdin, 2005), 145.   

[2] Alan Schreck, The Compact History of the Church (Cincinnati, OH: Servant Books, 2009), 156.

[3] Schreck, The Compact History of the Church, 156. 

[4] Schreck, The Compact History of the Church, 157.

[5] Schreck, The Compact History of the Church, 158. 

Book Review: The Interior Castle

 

In 1577 St. Teresa of Avila, now a doctor of the Church, completed her work The Interior Castle. This book takes the reader on an incredible journey through the "mansions" of the soul along the path to spiritual perfection as it can be achieved on earth. This book was inspired by the Holy Spirit and instructed by Christ himself to St. Teresa. One nun who often witnessed this great Saint write said she "noticed the resplendent face and the almost preternatural velocity with which her hand travelled over the paper."[1] The saint was also known to be seen in a heavenly trance while writing. This work is a powerful tool which is to be used by all Christians who seek not only to grow spiritually, but to understand their call to communion with God. 

St.Teresa split her book into seven mansions, each of which can be seen as a level so to speak of spiritual growth. The first mansion contains people who are not living in grave sin, yet are weakened by worldly attractions and pleasures. Conversion is the main action in this room of the soul. "We must convert from a worldly life to a Trinitarian life."[2] Emphasizing mediation, self-knowledge and humility will help to advance through this first "room" and into the next.

The second mansion is characterized by those who are experiencing notable and significant growth, yet are in a tug-of-war between the attractive pleasure of the world and the call of God. "For now the devil sets on us the reptiles, that is to say, thoughts about the world and its joys which they picture as unending ; they remind us of the high esteem men held us in, of our friends and relations; they tell us how penances which souls in this mansion always begin to wish to perform would injure our health."[3] Companionship, embracing of one's cross, daily fidelity to divine will, persistence, and fidelity in prayer are her advised.[4]

In the third mansion, the soul has advanced to having a great desire of not offending God. This entails active focus on the indwelling presence, humility, perseverance, and the acceptance of dryness in prayer. The fourth mansion is characterized by sweetness in prayer, divine consolations and prayer of the quiet. "Without any labor of one's own, the temple of which I spoke is reared for the soul I which to pray: the senses and exterior surroundings appear to lose their hold, while the spirit gradually reigns its lost sovereignty."[5]

The fifth mansion of the soul entails those who have detached from the world, who frequently enter into and desire solitude with God, and who desire to suffer for God's glory. Advised here are "disposal of self, perseverance, love of neighbor and avoidance of all occasions of sin."[6] This mansion leads to the sixth in which the souls has become so selfless as to experience life on earth as burdensome. This requires courage of the soul and a desire for God's will alone. 

The seventh and final mansion holds those who have achieved "intellectual vision of the Blessed Trinity and spiritual marriage."[7] This is complete oneness with God, achieved by complete selflessness and desire for God's glory and will, even to the point of great suffering and rejection of all earthly pleasures. "As far as can be understood, the soul, I mean the spirit of this soul, is made one with God Who is Himself a spirit, and Who has been pleased to show certain persons how far His love for us extends in order that we may praise His greatness."[8]

This deep and beautiful study of the journey to oneness with God is a personally inspiring and challenging story. St. Teresa of Avila was a woman of immense holiness. She suffered greatly, yet her love for Christ and attentiveness to his will allowed her to live in oneness with the Lord while on earth. This book is one which has the ability to provide a life changing experience. The way in which it is laid out is not only beautiful and unique but also deep while remaining readable and relatable. "Her great contribution to mystical literature lies not in the original conception of the castle symbol which apparently was an image of the soul enjoying some currency in a country with numerous castles, but in the transformation the symbol underwent as the author of the changes herself evolved in the mystical life."[9] By reading St. Teresa's The Interior Castle, one is sure to have a spiritually dynamic experience. 

[1] St. Teresa of Avila, The Interior Castle (Baker, London: Tan Books, 2011), xv.

[2] Fr. Richard Conlin, Summary of Interior Castle by St. Teresa of Avila at The Prodigal Catholic, 2018, prodigalcatholic.com

[3] St. Teresa, The Interior Castle, 27.

[4] Conlin, Summary of Interior Castle by St. Teresa of Avila.

[5] St. Teresa, The Interior Castle, 64. 

[6] Conlin, Summary of Interior Castle by St. Teresa of Avila.

[7] Conlin, Summary of Interior Castle by St. Teresa of Avila.

[8] St. Teresa, The Interior Castle, 194.

[9] Mary Coelho, "St. Teresa of Avila's Transformation of the Symbol of the Interior Castle," Teresianum no. 38, (1987), 110. 

St. Thomas More - How His Beliefs Concerning Religious Freedom Correspond to America Today

        Throughout his life, St. Thomas More was a constant advocate for his belief in Catholic doctrine; Consequently, he was rather steadfast in his defense of religious freedom in the face of tyranny and in light of worldly opposition. Having said this, this brief summary will discuss the significance of More's belief in religious freedom, as highlighted in his book Utopia. Furthermore, once I have effectively established his moral position, I will turn to focus on how these teachings might correspond with American society today. 

            To begin then, let us first consider how Thomas More viewed the topic of religious freedom in his book Utopia. Thus, to mention his widespread beliefs, as posed in his Utopia, More considers an ideal society in describing the Utopian's beliefs concerning religious freedom: "At the first constitution of their government, Utopus, having understood that before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged in great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided amongst themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since, instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in religion fought by themselves. After he had subdued them, he made a law that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavor to draw others to it by the force of argument and by amicable and modest ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions."[1] Now, this statement is of course rather extensive; However, from it, we can conclude some very important things about Thomas More's beliefs concerning religious freedom. Firstly, he highlights that in dividing people in heated opposition to one another, according to intolerance of opposing religion, the people of society are not only significantly more unhappy individually, but are altogether weaker as a whole. Additionally, in an ideal society, religious freedom should surpass mere personal practice, but should allow for friendly discussion amongst religions on the relevancy of their respective beliefs.

            Now, having established these rather common themes in respect to the beliefs of St. Thomas More, we are left to question the state of the American people of the modern world, in comparison to those people highlighted in More's ideal society. Additionally, I find it important to highlight that I can speak only on a subjective basis from this point forward; I have no factual data by which I might consider the extent of our current divide. This being said, one could argue that religion is frowned upon to some extent in modern America. Although diversity in private practice in relatively encouraged, we find ourselves at a point in history where many expect religion to be limited to one's private devotion alone. In an article posted by the New York Times titled: Opinion: We Are Taking Religious Freedom Too Far, the Times briefly discusses this balance of private practice and the right to share one's beliefs. Now, although the article in many ways highlights the importance of preventing discrimination against others by imposing one's beliefs on another, I believe the article rides dangerously close to suggesting that the sharing of one's beliefs should be disavowed in the public setting. In light of the work of Thomas More, as is posed above, I encourage anyone who is interested in reading the article for themselves should do so. I will attach it in a link below.

[1] More, Thomas, Utopia, (Originally published in 1516), Apple Store Online Version, 152

Opinion | We Are Taking Religious Freedom Too Far - The New York Times (nytimes.com)