Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages: Virtual Museum Exhibit

Introduction: The Medieval era was a period notable for remarkable development. Building upon the achievements and failures of previous centuries, at this time, culture received numerous components that now remain at the core of civilization. One area which benefited greatly from this growth was that of the arts. Embraced within both ecclesiastical and political settings, artistic expression took on a unique form during the Middle Ages, namely, illuminated manuscripts. While it is difficult to date the birth of this artform, it is understood that the tradition of using the codex (or book) began during the fifth century, following the end of the ancient practice of writing on papyrus scrolls.[1] Missionaries welcomed ornate books as a means of educating the populace through beauty, while emperors implemented illuminated manuscripts as tools to emphasize their absolute authority. This virtual museum exhibit will discuss the connection between the cultural dynamic of the Middle Ages and manuscript illumination, beginning with an exploration of this specific art medium. An examination of the social development of this artform will follow, illustrated by examples belonging to the Insular, Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic styles.

The Making of Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts: During the Middle Ages, the process of manuscript illumination was long and arduous. Produced primarily in monastic settings, the pages of the earliest books were of vellum parchment, a material most commonly made from the skins of sheep, goats, and calves. To create a surface optimal for decoration, the animal skins were soaked in lime for up to ten days, after which they were dried and shaped to the desired thickness.[2] In addition, the parchment-maker treated the skins with pumice powder and substances such as bole and gum ammoniac, generating a surface receptive to ink and paint.[3] Paint was created from a variety of elements, each blended with egg whites to form tempera. Gold leaf was often applied, adding to the page's majestic appearance. The effect given by the brilliant colors painted on the manuscripts, as well as the gold and silver used in their adornment, led to the evolvement of its Latin name, “illuminare,” meaning, “to light up.”[4] The completed book pages were ultimately sewn together and placed in ornamental binding, covers which alluded to the beauty held within.

The Cultural Development of Medieval Illumination:

Insular Illuminated Manuscripts

    The first illuminated manuscript example we will analyze belongs to the Insular tradition.  The term Insular refers to manuscripts completed in the British Isles from the seventh through the mid-ninth centuries.[5] While Insular art encompasses the work of several British regions, our specific example is reflective of the Celtic style. Beginning in the fifth century A.D., the Catholic Church strove to Christianize the Celts, sending numerous missionaries to the Celtic region. As Ireland embraced the Faith, monasticism flourished, together with the desire to share the Gospel with Irish unbelievers. This ambition led to the development of Celtic illumination. By supplementing their teachings with visual catechesis, the missionaries who evangelized to the Celts added a remarkable dimension to their education. The above image belongs to the Chi-rho-iota page of the Book of Kells, a late eighth to early ninth century Gospel book believed to have been illuminated at Iona, Scotland, or Kells in Co. Meath, Ireland.[6] Filling the page are the Greek initials for Christ (XPI, Chi-rho-iota), with the partially abbreviated words, autem generatio, placed at the bottom.[7] These words begin the narrative of Christ’s life on earth, as this particular page leads to the event of Jesus’s Nativity recounted in the Gospel of Saint Matthew. The designs comprising the Book of Kells (as well as countless other Celtic manuscripts) recall the cultural art of the region. In this way, the missionaries to the Celts evangelized using artistic expression familiar to the surrounding tradition, all while placing God at its center.

Carolingian Illuminated Manuscripts

    In contrast to Celtic illumination (art fully focused on the Divine), Frankish manuscripts of the ninth century served a political purpose. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, the Western world was enveloped in a cultural drought, the effects of which were felt keenly in the artistic realm. This situation, however, was drastically transformed when Charlemagne ascended the Frankish throne in the late eighth century. Charlemagne perceived himself to be a "new Constantine,"[8] and centered his reign around the arts, instituting a cultural revival which became known as the Carolingian Renaissance. With the aid of influential minds such as Abbot Alcuin of York, Charlemagne encouraged a growth in manuscript illumination. This served a dual purpose. While educating all viewers, Carolingian illuminated manuscripts simultaneously emphasized the authority of the ambitious ruler. The above images of Christ in Majesty (left) and Saint Luke (right) belong to the Godescalc Evangelistary, a manuscript illuminated during the later years of Charlemagne’s reign. Created between 781 A.D. and 783 A.D. in Aachen, Germany, this manuscript carried both political and spiritual significance. Commemorating Charlemagne's march to Italy, visitation with Pope Adrian I, and the baptism of Pepin, his son,^[9] this manuscript emphasized the empirical power of Charlemagne, as well as the increasingly significant role played by Catholicism in his reign.

Romanesque Illuminated Manuscripts

    For a third example of the relationship between manuscript illumination and Medieval cultural development, we turn now to the Romanesque period. As society stepped into the eleventh century, the artistic focus of Europe shifted toward a revival of ancient Roman architecture.[10] However, manuscript illumination continued to look to the more recent past for its inspiration, borrowing elements from the previous Insular and Carolingian traditions. Illuminators in Romanesque Europe concentrated on the texts of Sacred Scripture, encouraging piety through elaborate Bibles and Psalters. This artform rested at the core of monasticism and was used principally within religious orders. Consequently, it is of little surprise that these remarkable books were formed, transcribed, and decorated within Medieval monasteries. The above images belong to The Winchester Bible (1150-1175 A.D.), an English Romanesque masterpiece. Containing in large format the complete Biblical text from the Book of Genesis to Revelation, this manuscript was a “giant bible,” [11] a form of manuscript vital to monastic communities. The main image offers us an excellent representation of the monumental size of this book, as well as its intricate calligraphic text. Furthermore, the depiction of the encounter between God and the Prophet Jeremiah which we find in the left-hand detail ultimately exemplifies the merging of cultural artistic tradition that occurred during the Romanesque period.

Gothic Illuminated Manuscripts

    We now look to the Gothic era for our fourth and final Medieval illuminated manuscript exhibit piece. While still incorporating elements from the previous period, the Gothic manuscript style acutely highlighted the time’s cultural growth. First and foremost, a revolutionary focus was placed on the need for piety among all members of the Church, not merely the religious. This mental shift experienced by European society beginning in the mid-twelfth century led to notable growth in sacred artistic expression. Catholic laity now became the creators and receivers of illuminated manuscripts, and this branch of art was transformed to meet the needs of its new category of recipients. Born from Gothic developments was the Book of Hours, a devotion which became “medieval Europe's bestseller for three centuries.”[12] Whereas this manuscript template was adaptable, Medieval aristocrats and “ordinary people”[13] alike were able to enjoy its beauty. The above images depicting the Arrest of Jesus and the Annunciation belong to the Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux, a fourteenth century Queen of France. Illuminated in approximately 1325 A.D. by the French artist Jean Pucelle, this book conveys the spiritual mindset surrounding the wide acceptance of devotion among the laity. Presented by Charles VI, the "gift of the Book of Hours to his young wife was intended to condition her behavior in a general way, to encourage her to say her devotions regularly."[14] With plague and violence remaining a constant threat, people of the Gothic period were compelled to seek consolation in the Divine. They were thus inspired to pursue sanctity and found sacred solace in the splendor of manuscript illumination.

Conclusion: The gradual development of Medieval manuscript illumination creates an illustration of the cultural dynamic prevalent in the Middle Ages. As civilization adapted to the defining characteristics of each century, so too did this artform. Beginning with the manuscript tradition of the seventh century, this museum exhibit has followed the growth of this branch of art through the centuries, leading to the style which would in time, give way to the Renaissance. Although this artform eventually faded into memory with the invention of printing, its cultural and religious significance has not disappeared. By examining the correlation between illuminated manuscripts and the presence of Catholicism in the Middle Ages, it becomes clear that the two are inseparable. After supporting each other throughout the events of the Medieval world, both the Church and the tradition of manuscript illumination continue to remain at the heart of sacred imagery, evangelizing viewers with the Transcendentals of Goodness, Truth, and Beauty. 

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[1] Christopher De Hamel, A History of Illuminated Manuscripts, (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1994), 9.

[2] "The Making of a Medieval Book," (2003), in The J. Paul Getty Museum, at www.getty.edu.

[3] "The Making of a Medieval Book," in The J. Paul Getty Museum.

[4] "What is an Illuminated Manuscript," in Khan Academy, at www.khanacademy.org.

[5] Carol A. Farr, "Insular Manuscript Illumination," (August 28, 2019), in Oxford Bibliographies, at www.oxfordbibliographies.com.

[6] Donald W. Fritz, Origin and Meaning of Pattern in the Book of Kells," Journal of Analytical Psychology 22, No. 4 (1997), 343.

[7] Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, Book B, Fourteenth Edition (Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2013), 307.

[8] Nancy Ross, “Carolingian Art, An Introduction,” in Khan Academy, at www.khanacademy.org.

[9] “The Godesalc Evangelistary,” in History of Information, at www.historyofinformation.com.

[10] Kleiner, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, Book B, 334.

[11] Andreas Petzold, "The Morgan Leaf from the Winchester Bible," (February 7, 2019), in Smarthistory, at www.smarthistory.org.

[12] Jonathan Canning, "Colourful Devotions," Art Book 5, No. 2 (1998), 7.

[13] De Hamel, A History of Illuminated Manuscripts,168.

[14] Joan A. Holladay, "The Education of Jeanne d'Evreux: Personal Piety and Dynastic Salvation in her Book of Hours at the Cloisters," Art History 17, No. 4, 585.

Image Credit:

Image 1. "Eadwine the Scribe, Canterbury Psalter,” Illuminated Manuscript, 1755 A.D., Trinity College, Cambridge, www.royalacademy.org.uk.

Image 2. "Christ's Monogram Page, Book of Kells," Illuminated Manuscript, c 800 A.D., Trinity College, Dublin, http://culturedart.blogspot.com.

Image 3. "Christ in Majesty, Godescalc Evangelistar," Illuminated Manuscript, 781 - 783 A.D., National Library of France, Paris, https://higherinquietude.wordpress.com.

Image 4. "Saint Luke, Godescalc Evangelistary," Illuminated Manuscript, 781- 783 A.D., National Library of France, Paris, https://www.zvab.com.

Image 5. "God addressing Jeremiah, The Winchester Bible," Illuminated Manuscript, 1150 - 1175 A.D., Winchester Cathedral Library, England, https://smarthistory.org.

Image 6. "Winchester Bible," Illuminated Manuscript, 1150 - 1175 A.D., Winchester Cathedral Library, England, https://smarthistory.org.

Image 7. “Book of Hours of Jeanne d'Évreux," Illuminated Manuscript, c. 1324–28 A.D., Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, https://www.wga.hu.