The Theology and Idea of Transubstantiation

The Theology and Idea of Transubstantiation

      The idea of ordinary bread and wine taking on the form of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ has been around since the birth of the Church.  At the Last Supper, Christ directed Peter and the Apostles to consecrate bread and wine in memory of him, hence his words, “Do this in memory of me.”  In one moment, Christ gifted his Church two gifts: the priesthood and the Eucharist, two gifts which we still enjoy today.  But where did this word transubstantiation come from?

      The issue in the Early Church was less about terminology and more about the idea of ordinary bread and wine becoming the consecrated body and blood of our beloved Lord, Jesus Christ.  Did it really change into something other than bread and wine or was the change more symbolic?  What was Christ’s intention in giving us bread and wine as his body and blood?

Many of the early Church fathers, such as Justin Martyr, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Clement of Alexandria regarded the change as a more symbolic one, rather than a literal one.

      The word transubstantiation can find its roots in the philosophy of Aristotle, primarily in his ideas of substance and accidents.  Transubstantiation translates into “cross substances”, where a substance crosses over from reality to another but still maintaining his appearance.  This seems like too much a technical term to apply to such a significant theological concept.  It was not until the 16^th century that the Church identified the transformation of bread and wine under the identifier, transubstantiation, which lives on in the modern Church today.

 

    How do we reconcile other Christian churches including a eucharist in their worship, but only regard it in a symbolic sense?  What makes our Eucharist true, while others are symbolic?  As mentioned earlier, two things happened at the Last supper: priesthood and Eucharist.  The priesthood of Christ is what is necessary to facilitate the transformation of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ.  No other institution can facilitate such a change.

Book Review: Dogmatic Constitution of the Church

“Lumen Gentium”

      The mid 60s came with sweeping reforms within the Catholic Church.  In 1964, during the convention of the Second Vatican Council, his holiness, Pope Paul VI, along with a majority of the world-wide bishops, established a document solidifying the authority, identity, and mission of the Church, as well as the role of the faithful (laity) in the Church.  This document, as with all Church documents, would be identified by a Latin title, Lumen Gentium, “Light of the Nations.” This document was divided into 8 chapters:

      Chapter 1: The Mystery of the Church

      Chapter 2: On the People of God

      Chapter 3: The Hierarchical Structure of the Church, in Particular, the Episcopate

      Chapter 4: The Laity

      Chapter 5: The Universal Call to Holiness in the Church

      Chapter 6: The Religious

      Chapter 7: The Eschatological Nature of the Pilgrim Church and Its Union with the Church   

                        In Heaven

      Chapter 8: The Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God, in the Mystery of Christ and the

                        Church

      Chapter 1, “The Mystery of the Church” strives to enforce the theology of the Catholic Church as being the “sole Church of Christ,” just as we proclaim it to be in the Nicene Creed, when we claim to be “one, holy, catholic and apostolic.”

      Chapter 2, “On the People of God,” confirms the identity of the faithful as the People of God, the true Church.  It goes on to proclaim the faith community as sharing in the priesthood of Christ, establishing both the common priesthood and the ministerial priesthood.  This chapter closes with the doctrine of salvation, for all.  It claims we are all called to serve in the Church of Christ, but that since we are not all formed by the same faith, we are linked in our identities as Christians.

      Chapter 3, “The Hierarchical Structure of the Church, in Particular, the Episcopate,” establishes the formal hierarchy of the Church, with the Pope at the top level, and the role that the episcopate, the bishops, play within the hierarchical structure.

      Chapter 4, “The Laity,” proclaims that by their sacramental initiation in baptism, communion, and confirmation, the faithful are called to take part in the “apostolic mission” of Christ.  The faithful are called, by sacramental participation, to share in charity towards both God and man.

      Chapter 5, “The Universal Call to Holiness in the Church,” explains how the faithful are called to serve the Church in the fullness of Christian identity and charity and to devote of their whole selves to the glory and service of God.

      Chapter 6, “The Religious,” calls on all the faithful to give primacy to the Kingdom of God and all that it requires and to establish first before all earthly entitlements.  It demonstrates the power of Christ and the Holy Spirit within the life of the Church.

      Chapter 7, “The Eschatological Nature of the Pilgrim Church and Its Union with the Church   

In Heaven,” shares the connection of the Church on Earth and the Church in Heaven, as to how both work together as one.

      Chapter 8, “The Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God, in the Mystery of Christ and the Church,” is perhaps the most profound chapter in the document.  At least, in my opinion.  This chapter proclaims the supremacy and importance of Mary’s role in the life of Christ and his Church.  It promulgates the doctrine of Mary as Mother of God, and her special role in life of the Church.

      This was not the only document to come out of the Second Vatican Council and it is not the document that pronounced the sweeping changes in the Church that still exist today, Mass in the vernacular and the orientation of the priest to the people during Mass, to name a couple.  This document is important nonetheless, if not for anything else, then its proclamation of the importance of Mary and her role in the Church.  A lot of what we believe about the Church today can find its root in this document.  Official Vatican documents and papal encyclicals are not easy reads, but the purpose of this document is to give the faithful a clearer understanding of the Church, as Christ intended it to be.  The document is insightful, informational, concise, and profound.  I have read this document many times and always seem to take away something different each time, thereby enriching my faith more and more.  A much recommended read for anyone wishing to understand the Church more.

The Didache: Our First Catechism

Introduction

     One of the earliest documents we have from church history is a document known as The Didache.  The name Didache comes from the Greek word meaning “teaching”.  Also called the Teaching of the Apostles (in reference to the first line of the document), this document is claimed to be a compilation of the direct teachings of the Apostles.  The exact dating of the Didache hasn’t been determined, but it is thought to range from between 60 and 110 AD 1.  Given the standard date of death for some of the Apostles, such as Saint Paul, Peter, and John, this document could very well have existed during their lifetimes.  Some early Christians held that the document was inspired scripture, though it never made it’s way into the canon, though some scholars hold the opinion that the Gospel of Matthew is largely dependent on, and draws from, the Didache 2.

Composition

  The Didache is separated into sixteen chapters, with each section containing a brief paragraph of points regarding the chapter topic.  Sections include topics such as The Commandments, avoiding sin, the method of baptism, fasting, prayer, the Eucharist, and Bishops 3.  Interesting things to note are that baptisms were traditionally held in a river, if available, in order to simulate Our Lord’s baptism, but, if unavailable, the current method of sprinkling water over the head was allowed 4.  The Lord’s Prayer was also directed to be said three times a day 5.  Instruction is provided on these topics due to the still forming nature of the early church.  Though still early, the clear and established belief in the Eucharist 6, baptism, a hierarchical church and holy orders is obvious throughout the text.

Apologetical Value

  The importance of the Didache in relation to church history can’t be understated.  The existence and contents of this document go to support a variety of Catholic beliefs and practices that have been challenged throughout the years.  Ranging from the authority of apostolic teaching, the handing down of tradition outside of scripture, infant baptism, sprinkling versus immersion baptism, the offices of bishop, priest, and deacon, and Eucharistic prayers, are all attested to at a date far earlier that is claimed by critics who mistakenly accuse the Catholic Church of making up these beliefs in the Middle Ages.

Conclusion

     In conclusion, any student of church history should take the time to read over this document and see it as a valuable porthole into the very earliest times of the church.  Before we had an established canon of scripture, the Didache exited as a useful guide to help the early Christians in the proper liturgical and spiritual practices.  Both Apologists and Catechists should reference this document in the practice of their duties, since it can still serve as a valuable tool even in our modern day.

1 Henry Chadwick The Early Church (New York: Penguin Books, 1967), 47

2 A. J. P. Garrow “The Gospel of Matthew’s Dependence on the Didache”. Journal for the Study of the New Testament. London: Continuum, 2004, 72

3 The Didache located at New Advent at www.newadvent.org


4 The Didache located at New Advent at www.newadvent.org


5 The Didache located at New Advent at www.newadvent.org

6 Jonathan Schwiebert Knowledge and the Coming Kingdom : The Didache’s Meal Ritual and Its Place in Early Christianity (London: T&T Clark, 2008), 19

The Desert Fathers

Introduction

The book The Desert Fathers is a compilation of the biographies, sayings, and practices of the earliest Christians who separated themselves from the world and retreated to the desert in an effort to live a life closer to God and conform themselves to the model of the life of Christ, who Himself was in the desert for 40 days 1.
The book contains an introduction by Helen Waddell, who also translated the book into English.  Ms. Waddell’s efforts come through beautifully when reading this book for two reasons:  Firstly, the translation into English allows the beauty of the original works to shine through without coming across as stilted or old-fashioned.  Though many people find the prose of Shakespeare quite beautiful, many a modern reader who is unfamiliar with that style of writing will come away frustrated at the effort required to read and comprehend the given passages.  In contrast, a tone that comes across as too casual would render the words of such saintly men as nothing more serious than a post someone would find on Facebook.  Ms. Waddell manages to find perfect medium between these two extremes and translates the works into a flowing and easily read, yet quite beautiful prose.
Secondly, Ms Waddell precedes each chapter of this book with an introduction that provides history and background to not only the work, but the writer and/or translator of the works themselves.  This lends insight into why, for example, Saint Jerome, chose to translate the biography of Saint Paul the Hermit 2.  It also shows the influence that the Desert Fathers had on many of the saints in the early part of church history, such as Saints Jerome, Athanasius, and Ephraim of Edessa.

Overview

The book begins with a biography of the life of Saint Paul the Hermit, who is considered the first Christian to live life as a hermit in the desert.  His example was followed by Saint Atony, who many, even within his own life, mistakenly believe to be the first Christian monk, though Antony himself said he was inspired by the example of Saint Paul the Hermit and sought out his spiritual insight 3.
Moving on from Saint Paul the Hermit, the next chapter gives a history of the monks of Egypt, detailing how the early monastic communities were formed and the methods they used to overcome their vices, defeat sin, and grow closer to God.  These communities helped to develop various “rules”, or “ways of living” that would later go on to be further refined and developed by others such as Saint Basil and Saint Benedict 4.
The next three chapters are labeled simply “the sayings of the fathers” and give just that – a collection of the sayings of these Desert Fathers on such topics as perfection, the importance of silence, self restraint, avoiding fornication, detachment from worldly goods, patience, charity, discretion, sobriety, prayer, mercy, obedience, humility, love, and contemplation.  The Desert Fathers lent their insight to a variety of topics which they had come to knowledge about through many years of solitude, prayer and fasting.  These saying were compiled because of their timeless value, as demonstrated by their use and veneration by Christians from the fourth century until the present day.
The next chapter is a brief explanation by Cassian of Marseilles regarding acedia and how to overcome it by mortification.  Acedia is what we refer to in English as “sloth”, though the word has entered into the popular vernacular to mean nothing more than laziness.  The original meaning of the term was much deeper though, since it dealt with laziness or refusal to perform needed actions in our spiritual life.  It’s a  boredom or resentment of our spiritual duty to pray and grow closer to God 5.  This was a topic dealt with quite frequently by the early monks and Cassian explains how the process of mortification is vital in overcoming acedia.  Cassian made great contributions to theological writing, and it is thought that his concepts of that eight principle vices were the basis for the development of the theology surrounding the Seven Deadly Sins 6.
After this, we are given fragments of the Paradisus and the Pratum Spirituale, both of which deal with various topics and give more sayings and stories from the Desert Fathers.
Finally, the book concludes with biographies of the lives of Saint Pelagia the Harlot and Saint Mary the Harlot.  These lives and examples of these two saints in particular are especially applicable in our modern age and show how to overcome the life of fornication, lust, and mortal sin and enter into the freedom of a life lived with the grace of Christ.

Summary

  The lives of the desert fathers turn out to be strikingly different from much of Christianity, even within their own day.  The monks had what some would call extreme forms of asceticism – often  performing such acts as forgoing food for many days, eating only a small amount of food once a day, not sleeping, denying themselves any form of pleasure at all, and various other acts of penance.  Their methods of eliminating vice and growing closer to God through prayer and penance show the importance and necessity of doing all we can to avoid and overcome sin in our lives.
Recommendation
     I highly recommend this book to all Christians.  The importance of learning and understanding our history and faith from those that came before us can’t be stressed enough.  By reading about the lives of the early monks and seeing how seriously they took their lives of faith, penance, and prayer, it provides valuable insight into how the early Christians lived and thought, as well as learning about the lives of the people who founded monasticism, a discipline that would later go on to preserve, develop, and make valuable contributions not only to Christianity, but to the entire world.  Our modern day world, with all its creature comforts, technology, and feel-good messages (both secular and religious) ignore or downplay the seriousness of sin and it’s effects on our life.  By reading about the Desert Fathers, both in biography and in their own words, it sheds an intense light on how seriously the early Christians took the process of ridding themselves of sin, the importance of prayer, meditation, and scripture reading in the development of the spiritual life of the Christian.

1 The Holy Bible: Revised Standard Version, Second Catholic Edition (San Francisco: Ignatius, 2002), Mt 4:1-11

2 Helen Waddell (translator) The Desert Fathers (New York: Random House, 1998), 30

3 Waddell, The Desert Fathers, 36

4 Agamben, Giorgio, and Adam Kotsko. The Highest Poverty : Monastic Rules and Form-of-Life. Meridian, Crossing Aesthetics. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 2013. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=713567&authtype=cookie,cpid&custid=s9245834&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

5 R. J. Snell Acedia and Its Discontents (Kettering: Angelico Press, 2015), 10

6 Jane Foulcher Reclaiming Humility : Four Studies in the Monastic Tradition. Cistercian Studies Series. Collegeville, Minnesota, 2015: Cistercian Publications. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspxdirect=true&db=e000xna&AN=1409669&authtype=cookie,cpid&custid=s9245834&site=-live&scope=site.

A Review of The Dialogue by St. Catherine of Siena

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, "St. Catherine of Siena," ca. 1746, painting, at https://www.wikiart.org

     

      St. Catherine, a mystic and doctor of the Church, lived during the Avignon papacy when much corruption existed among the ministers of the Church. On account of her wisdom, she was called to assist the Holy Father in returning to Rome, and she saw much corruption in the process of fulfilling this calling. Her concern over the state of the Church is revealed within The Dialogue. This work is structured as a prayerful dialogue with the Father. In places, the Father directs hard words against ministers of the Church.¹ However, these words are also surrounded by admonishes to give proper respect to His ministers. A fuller understanding of the insight of this work needs to consider the work as a whole, with special focus on the content of the beginning of the dialogue. 

      Catherine begins by communicating a desire for the honor of God and the salvation of souls, a desire which grows when she is provided fuller recognition of the extent of corruption within the Church.² However, as she prays to the Father for herself and others, she grows in a self knowledge and begins to recognize how united the Church is, "with a great knowledge of herself, being ashamed of her own imperfection, appearing to herself to be the cause of all the evil that was happening throughout the world."³ She recognized that in her own sins, she was to blame. Having not assisted with prayers and harming through sin, she had performed an injustice to her neighbor and had a part in the corruption of the Church. 

     In this consideration, the Father directs the conversation further as He seeks to assist her soul in development. He explains that through Christ alone can full propitiation for sin be made. She is not, therefore, to trust in her own finite suffering, for it is not the act itself which supplies the effects. Rather, through the love by which she does the acts, she attains remission of the sin and its effects through Christ’s sacrifice; it is not the finite pain, but the infinite contrition which the Father accepts as united to Christ’s sacrifice. However, the soul should desire, out of love, to suffer. This charity by which she seeks to serve Him, of necessity, must include the virtue of humility by which love is fostered; a proper humility recognizes one's own true nature and that of the infinite God through whom that nature was received and without whom it could not exist. As the soul grows in this true charity, she grows in a desire to suffer in love of God. The greater the measure of love with which she does these acts, the more the act will please God. This love is further strengthened and developed through practice of acts of love and loving perseverance in times of trial. However, the love developing must not be for the suffering itself, but for the developing of virtue.⁴ 

     With this focus, discretion must discern the manner and extent of penance which is possible. However, the Father stresses, one cannot judge merit on the extent of penance, for merit does not consist in the penance itself. Rather, merit consists solely in the measure of the virtue of love, properly ordered by discretion, through which the act is performed. Through these virtues we ensure to perform our duties to God and neighbor and properly attributes to God the good developed from virtue. Developing these virtues with humility, the soul guards her development from the snares of sin.⁵

     It is with this context that the Father first brings in a lament on the state of the Church with special mention of His ministers. The members of the Church are become filthy in self-love, pride, and avarice; the ministers, granted the privilege to administer the holy sacraments, are not excepted from these sins and administer that which is sacred, in ignorance and ingratitude, with "filthy hands." The Father proceeds to explain that where more is given, the greater will be the punishment. However, He promises that His faithful servants' hunger for souls will accomplish much for their salvation if the faithful will endure much in love. However, in the suffering, He promises great blessing through Christ.⁶

     The Father expounds this promise; He presents Jesus as the bridge over the tempestuous waters which rose by Adam's sin. There are three steps of the bridge, symbolizing three stages of the soul. At Christ's feet, the first step of the bridge, the soul removes herself from earthly affection; seeking to purify herself of vice, she gazes into Christ's heart and recognizes His great love for her. Recognizing His selfless love, the soul climbs to the second step, uniting her heart with His, developing in love and virtue. The soul then proceeds to the third step, the mouth of Christ, where she attains peace and is no longer buffeted by the torrential waters. This bridge may be hard to travel, but, unlike travel in the waters under the bridge, traveling the bridge of virtue causes burdens to become light. The bridge's union between Heaven and earth is created through the Holy Spirit's direction of the development of Church doctrine. Through traveling this bridge, man once again can attain the blessings of eternal life.⁷

      After this explanatory metaphor, the Father and the soul converse about the suffering of sin and the blessings received through virtue. There are many graces received by virtue, and those who seek pleasure in sin are to be both pitied and loved. However, the Father does at times remove spiritual consolations from the soul pursuing virtue, that the soul may grow in self knowledge and in recognition of dependence on Him and thus attain greater perfection. The soul must not, therefore, seek to serve God only for the sake of spiritual consolation, but must persevere even when the consolation be temporarily removed. To persevere, the soul must humbly turn to Heaven’s assistance through prayer and reception of the Sacraments. Through this means the soul can seek God’s grace to grow in perfection through death to her own will and desiring only the will of the Father. It is from this context of the personal responsibility of the soul to grow in virtue and sacrificial charity through vigilance and prayer that the Father proceeds to acknowledge the soul’s concern about corruption in the Church and the world.⁸

     The Father first speaks on the dignity of the priests who administer the sacraments, stating that they deserve respect on account of His choice to use them to provide the sacred sacraments to the faithful, even if they dishonor their calling. He acknowledges the soul’s recognition of the sin of many ministers but explains that recognition of the dignity of the Sacraments should inspire the soul to better recognize the dignity of the minister and grieve for those who administer the sacraments in sin.⁹

     It is in this context that He speaks harshly of His ministers, stating that they “wallow in the mire of filth, or … inflated by pride, seek… great prelacies.”¹⁰ As such, He has already presented the soul with her own sinfulness and her obligation to charity. He has further assisted her in recognition of the blessings of virtue and the pitiful state of those in sin and calls her to fuller perfection. He further presents to her the innate dignity of the priesthood and the respect due to the priests.

     Therefore, the Father’s statements become an acknowledgement of the objective immorality of the ministers. The soul, speaking to Him in prayer, is distressed about this immorality, and the Father is inflaming in her heart charitable pity for these souls and a desire for their conversion which becomes all the more intense on account of their dignified calling. The Father is not disgracing the minister or treating them with improper dignity; He called them to the dignity of their office and it is they who dishonored this sacred calling. Rather, He is calling the soul to union with Him through charity and to a recognition of the dignity of the priesthood and her obligation to pray for priests: “You should love them … by reason of the virtue and dignity of the Sacrament, and by reason of that very virtue and dignity you should hate the defects of those who live miserably in sin, but not on that account appoint yourselves their judges, which I forbid, because they are My Christs.”¹¹ The Father calls the soul to recognize and hate the defects, but forbids the soul to judge His “Christs,” even as she recognizes their sin. Rather, recognition of these defects, along with personal humility, should encourage a charitable zeal for their conversion, enhanced through recognition of their dignified office. The Father, encouraging her to self-knowledge from the beginning of the dialogue, encourages her in this also to see things as they truly are and to recognize her obligation to charity.

     The Dialogues is a work of deep insight from the communication of a saint and mystic with God. It inspires self-recognition and a recognition of one’s duty to God and neighbor. This timeless work aids one in identifying and embracing fully one’s duty to God and neighbor, motivated by appreciation of God’s love and awareness of the pitiful state of sin.

¹ Robert Kiely, “The saint who lost her head: or who's afraid of Catherine of Siena?” Religion and the Arts 8 no. 3 (2004) 304-305.

² Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library) 17, at www.ccel.org.

³ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 18.

⁴ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 19-36.

⁵ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 31-36.

⁶ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 39-43.

⁷ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 44-54

⁸ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 55-133.

⁹ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 137-144.

¹⁰ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 144.

¹¹ Catherine of Siena, Dialogue of Catherine of Siena, 151.

Islamic Conquest and the Christian Response - Timeline

AD 632 - Death of Muhammad¹

AD 636 - Muslims take Syria.²

AD 637 - Sack of Jerusalem by Caliph Umar³

AD 638 - Muslims take Palestine.⁴

AD 641 - Egypt falls.⁵

AD 674-678 - Muslims attack and are defeated at Constantinople.⁶

AD 711 - Muslims conquest of Spain begins and Christian North Africa.^{7, 8}

AD 717-718 - Muslims attack and are defeated at Constantinople for the second time.⁹

AD 732 - Muslim army is defeated by Charles Martel at the battle of Tours, in France.¹⁰

AD 1009 - Caliph Hakim destroys the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.¹¹

AD 1014 - By this time, “some 30,000 churches had been burned or pillaged”¹²

AD 1071 - Seljuk Turks conquer most of Asia Minor¹³

AD 1084 - Nicaea falls to Turks.¹⁴

AD 1085 - Christians begin to fight back and regain Toledo in Spain¹⁵

AD 1095 - Emperor Alexius I asks for military aid; Council of Clermont - Pope Urban II calls First Crusade.^{16, 17}

“The Crusades were military expeditions organized by the Church for the liberation of the Holy Land from Muslim control and for the defense of the Christian faith and protection of Christian pilgrims.”¹⁸  Pope Urban II “forbade any unworthy motive for going on a Crusade, such as for glory or temporal gain.”¹⁹  This, however, did not stop some atrocities from happening.

AD 1095 - Count Emicho of Leiningen led a group of Crusaders down the Rhine River robbing and murdering all the Jews they came across.  Their actions were condemned by the Church.²⁰

AD 1096 - People’s Crusade called by Peter the Hermit in Germany.  Forty-fifty thousand men and women make it to Asia Minor; all but two-three thousand are either killed or enslaved.  The First Crusader armies arrive at Constantinople.²¹

AD 1097 - The remaining Crusader armies arrive at Constantinople.  The Crusaders besiege and take back Nicaea. and then head to Antioch.^{22, 23, 24}

AD 1098 - Crusaders besiege and take back Antioch; also, they expell the Greek patriarch there breeding more bad blood between east and west.^{25, 26}

AD 1099 - Crusaders conquered Jerusalem, but kill many inhabitants in the city.  They then march to Ascalon and defeat the Egyptian Army there.  The First Crusade was the only one which took back Jerusalem ^{27, 28} 

AD 1144 - Turks and Kurds reconquer Edessa sparking support for another Crusade.²⁹

AD 1146 - Second Crusade went to strengthen Antioch, which was close to Edessa.  It ended in military failure, and unbeknownst to the Crusaders, the Emperor had already signed a treaty with the Turks.^{30, 31, 32}

AD 1187 - Jerusalem surrenders to Turks under Saladin.³³

AD 1189 - Third Crusade begins - Acre and entire coast reconquered for the West by Richard the Lionheart.  However, he failed to reconquer Jerusalem, and settles for a truce with Saladin, which will ensure peace and allow unarmed pilgrims free access to Jerusalem.^{34, 35, 36}

AD 1201 - Fourth Crusade is called by Pope Innocent III.³⁷  

AD 1202 - The Pope excommunicates the entire Crusade and the Venetians after they convince the Crusading leaders to sack the Christian city of Zara.  He later lifted the excommunication on the Crusaders, since the majority of the knights didn’t know or understand what their leaders had planned.³⁸

AD 1204 - Crusaders sack Constantinople, establishing a Latin government which lasted only a short time after the Emperor couldn’t pay a debt he owed them.  This was strongly condemned by the Pope.^{39, 40}

AD 1215 - Fifth Crusade is called by Innocent III.  Crusaders capture Damietta in Egypt, but quickly lose it again to Muslim control; once again they fail to recapture Jerusalem.^{41, 42} 

AD 1228 - Sixth Crusade was a visit by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who managed to regain Jerusalem and other holy sites through diplomacy, but lost Jerusalem again 15 years later.^{43, 44}

AD 1236 - Christians retake Cordova in Spain.⁴⁵

AD 1248 - Christians regain Seville in Spain.⁴⁶

AD 1248 - Seventh Crusade - Led by King Louis IX of France (St. Louis), who was captured and taken prisoner.^{47, 48}

AD 1270 - Eighth Crusade is launched and also led by St. Louis, who dies that same year at Tunis due to disease.⁴⁹

AD 1291 - Acre falls again to the Muslims bringing an end to the Eight official Crusades.⁵⁰

__________________

¹Alan Schreck, The Compact History of the Catholic Church. Rev. ed. (Cincinnati: Servant, 2009), 39.

²Saunders, J. J., A History of Medieval Islam, Vol. Taylor & Francis e-Library ed. London: Routledge, 2002, at HACS Library website, at http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=70363&site=ehost-live&scope=site. 

³“Crusades,” Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, January 2019, 1–4, at HACS Library website, at https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=134510649&authtype=cookie,cpid&custid=s9245834&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

⁴Timeline of Islam, at KLRN, at https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/timeline.html.

⁵Timeline of Islam.

⁶Schreck, The Compact History, 39.

⁷Timeline of Islam.

⁸Thomas F. Madden, The Real History of the Crusades, at Catholic Culture (April 2002), at https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=4461.

⁹Schreck, The Compact History, 39.

¹⁰Schreck, The Compact History, 39.

¹¹John Vidmar, O.P., The Catholic Church Through The Ages: A History. 2 ^nd^ ed. (New Jersey: Paulist, 2014), 125.

¹²Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 125.

¹³Madden, History of the Crusades, 3.

¹⁴Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 123.

¹⁵Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 126.

¹⁶Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 123, 128.

¹⁷Madden, History of the Crusades, 3.

¹⁸Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

¹⁹Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

²⁰Madden, History of the Crusades, 5.

²¹Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 124, 128.

²²Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 129.

²³Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

²⁴Madden, History of the Crusades, 5.

²⁵Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

²⁶”Crusades,” 1-4.

²⁷Madden, History of the Crusades, 5.

²⁸Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 131.

²⁹Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

³⁰Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 132.

³¹Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

³²Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

³³Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

³⁴Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 132-3.

³⁵Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

³⁶Schreck, The Compact History, 51.

³⁷Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

³⁸”Crusades,” 1-4.

³⁹Madden, History of the Crusades, 6.

⁴⁰Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 133.

⁴¹Madden, History of the Crusades, 4, 7.

⁴²Schreck, The Compact History, 57.

⁴³Schreck, The Compact History, 57.

⁴⁴”Crusades,” 1-4.

⁴⁵Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 126.

⁴⁶Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 126.

⁴⁷Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 133.

⁴⁸Madden, History of the Crusades, 7.

⁴⁹Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 133.

⁵⁰Vidmar, The Catholic Church, 133.

All images from Google images: The Crusades, https://www.google.com/search?q=The+crusades&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS96Wy9vbgAhUMIKwKHYHOD7oQ_AUIDigB&biw=1517&bih=695, and Islamic Art, https://www.google.com/search?biw=1517&bih=695&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=17qEXJyZJ8KXjwT8kIPwBg&q=islamic+art&oq=islamic+art&gs_l=img.3...20141.20141..20259...0.0..0.0.0.......1....1..gws-wiz-img.ckAC7eWZeco.